Lesson 2. The future of computers

I. Read and memorize the following words and words combinations:

advantage – преимущество

development work – работа по созданию

cost - effective – подходящий по цене

to design – конструировать, проектировать

incredibly – невероятно

to approach – приближаться

corresponding increase – соответствующее повышение

to accomplish – выполнять

pictorially – графически

to straighten out – расположить должным образом

actually – на самом деле, фактически

to be in a fairly widespread use – довольно широко использоваться

value – ценность

 

II. Read and translate the text.

During the past decade development work for extremely powerful and cost-effective computers has concentrated on new architectures. In place of “scalar” processors, the emphasis moved towards “vector” and “parallel” processors, commonly referred to as “supercomputers”. These machines are now in widespread use in many branches of science. Vectorization of quark field calculations in particle physics has improved performance by factors of ten or twenty compared with the traditional scalar algorithms.

Computers must still be programmed for every action they take which is a great limitation. How quickly the programmer can tell it what to do becomes a major drag on computer speeds. The time lag can be shortened by linking up different computers and designing more efficient ways to jam information in and pull it out of the machine, but the basic limitation of the step-by-step program remains.

The incredibly rapid speeds we are approaching will be of little value without a corresponding increase in the speed with which we can get at the computer-generated information. A new approach, called graphics, uses the cathode-ray tube — the picture tube of your TV set — to display the information pictorially. A light pen — actually an electronic pointer — can be touched to the screen, and conversation between man and machine can be accomplished. For example, the computer can flash a series of options on its screen. The scientist selects the one he wants by touching it with a light pen. The great advantage of these so-called graphic computers is in solving design problems and in coping with any trial-and-error situation.

The graphic computer offers the most flexible means of communication between man and machine yet developed. For example, the designer can draw a car roof on the screen with his light pen. The computer will do the mathematics required to straighten out the lines and, in effect, present a draftsman’s version of the designer’s idea. The computer will then offer a variety of options to the designer — “front view”, “cross section”, and so on. All the designer needs to do is to touch his light pen to the appropriate choice, and the computer does the rest.

Notes

Vectorization of quark field calculations in particle physics has improved performance by factors of ten or twenty – векторизация вычислений кваркового поля в квантовой физике повысило качество и результативность научных исследований в 10 или 20 раз. To jam information in and pull it out of the machine –чтобы сжать информацию при вводе и выводе ее из машины; in coping with any trial-and-error situation – при воспроизведении любой ситуации методом подбора.

 

III. Give the Russian equivalents.

Development work; powerful computers; in place of; in fairly widespread use; the time lag; a great limitation; to design more efficient devices; step-by-step; will be of little value; computer-generated information; to display the information pictorially; a light pen; an electronic pointer; a series of options; to solve design problems; the most flexible means of communication; to straighten out the lines; the designer’s idea; a draftsman’s version

 

IV. Give the English equivalents.

В течение последнего десятилетия; довольно широко используются; время запаздывания может быть сокращено; сжать информацию; пошаговая программа; невероятно высокие скорости; катодно-лучевая трубка; более эффективные устройства; электронная указка; показывать информацию графически; большое преимущество; нестандартная ситуация; в результате; подходящий вариант; так называемый; задачи проектирования; самые совершенные средства связи.

 

V. Finds pairs of synonyms.

To calculate; a device; information; to display; to design; development; to choose; appropriate; to accomplish; in place of; for example; to link; to concentrate; to straighten out; an option; an idea; a choice; for instance; a project; to focus; to carry out; to show; progress; to compute; proper; an apparatus; to select; to smooth out; to connect; instead of; data; to construct.

 

VI. Complete the following sentences.

1. The time lag can be shortened by linking up different computers and designing more efficient to ___and ___. 2. These machines are now in fairly widespread use in many ___.3. Graphics uses the cathode-ray tube to display the information ___.4. The great advantage of these so-called graphic computers is in ___and in ___.5. The scientist selects the option by touching it with a ___.6. The computer can flash a series of options on its ___.7. All the designer needs to do is to touch his light pen to the ___.8. The graphic computer offers the most flexible means of communication between man and machine yet ___.9. How quickly the programmer can tell his computer what to do becomes a major drag on ___.10. Computers must still be programmed for every action they take which is a ___.

 

VII. Answer these questions.

1. What changes have taken place in development work for extremely powerful computers during the past decade? 2. What kind of processor is usually called a supercomputer? 3. What is a great limitation of a computer? 4. How can the time lag be shortened? 5. What approach can be used to display the information pictorially? 6. What is a light pen? 7. What is the great advantage of graphic computers? 8. What means of communication between man and machine does the graphic computer offer? 9. What options can the computer offer to present a draftsman’s version of the designer’s idea?

 

VIII. Read the texts without the dictionary. Retell them either in Russian or in English.

Optical switches

Until now, the switches inside computers have been electronics. European scientists are going to demonstrate the world’s first optical computer. This demonstration will come 22 years after the theory behind optical computers was first predicted by researchers from the computer company IBM.

However, there is still a large gap between what theoretical physicists believe can be done, and what electronic engineers know is possible.

In theory, optical switches leave their electronic counterparts standing. It is like comparing the speed of light with the speed of electricity. Optical switches are so fast and yet so small that an optical device of one square centimeter can resolve 10 separate spots of light and each can be switched on and off at a speed of 30 nanoseconds. This means that an optical device one square centimeter in area could, in theory at least, handle 3×10 bits per second.

Notes

Leave their electronic counterparts standing – во много раз превосходят свои электронные аналоги.

 

Who knew modern technology — cable technology — turns thoughts into action!

Brown University has developed a computer system that allows a paralyzed person to use thoughts to become actions. A cable is plugged into electrodes in man’s head. This allows him to image movements which then occur. He has moved a computer cursor, opened e-mail and turned on a television. This is done with imagination and a computer program.

The results have been reported in an issue of the journal Nature. Imagine the significance of this. Many people are paralyzed and unable to function on a daily basis. This new technology holds out hope for many. At this point, the patient is in a card loaded with electronics. A cable plugs into the skull for the final connection to the patient. Brown University is hoping to create a wireless implant device. The current implant senses brainwave patterns when the patient thinks simple commands.

The scientific community has been waiting years for this brain-wave technology. They and we look forward to future developments. Improvements will surely come and provide some relief to the patients who quietly wait.

 

Lesson 3. Internet security

 

I. Discuss these questions.

1. What is a hacker?

2. How easy do you think it is to infiltrate the Internet and steal sensitive information?

3. How can you protect your computer from viruses and spyware?

II. Read the text quickly and see how many of your ideas from Ex. 1 Question 3 are mentioned in it?

III. Read the text carefully and answer these questions.

1. Why is security so important on the Internet? 2. What security features are offered by Mozilla Firebox? 3. What security protocol is used by banks to make online transactions secure? 4. How can we protect our email and keep it private? 5. What methods are used by companies to make internal networks secure? 6. In what ways can a virus enter a computer system? 7. How does a worm spread itself?

 

There are many benefits from an open system like the internet, but one of the risks is that we are often exposed to hackers, who break into computer system just for fun, to steal information, or to spread viruses. Originally, all computer enthusiasts and skilled programmers were known as hackers, but during the 1990s, the term hacker became synonymous with cracker — a person who uses technology for criminal aims. Nowadays, people often use the word hacker to mean both things. In the computer industry, hackers are known as white hats and crackers are called black hats or darkside hackers.

So how do we go about making our online transactions secure?

Security on the Web. Security is crucial when you send confidential information online. Consider, for example, the process of buying a book on the Web. You have to type your credit card number into an order form which passes from computer to computer on its way to the online bookstore. If one of the intermediary computers is infiltrated by hackers, your data can be copied.

To avoid risks, you should set all security alerts to high on your web browser. Mozilla Firefox displays a lock when the website is secure and allows you to disable or delete cookies — small files placed on your hard drive by web servers so that they can recognize your PC when you return to their site.

If you use online banking services, make sure they use digital certificates — files that are like digital identification cards and that identify users and web servers. Also be sure to use a browser that is compliant with SSL (Secure Sockets Layer), a protocol which provides secure transactions.

Email privacy. Similarly, as your email travels across the Net, it is copied temporarily onto many computers in between. This means that it can be read by people who illegally enter computer systems.

The only way to protect a message is to put it in a sort of virtual envelope — that is, to encode it with some form of encryption. A system designed to send email privately is Pretty Good Privacy, a freeware program written by Phil Zimmerman.

Network security. Private networks can be attacked by intruders who attempt to obtain information such as Social security numbers, bank accounts or research and business reports. To protect crucial data, companies hire security consultants who analyse the risks and provide solutions. The most common methods of protection are passwords for access control, firewalls, and encryption and decryption systems. Encryption changes data into a secret code so that only someone with a key can read it. Decryption converts encrypted data back into its original form.

Malware protection. Malware (malicious software) are programs designed to infiltrate or damage your computer, for example, viruses, worms, Trojans and spyware. A virus can enter a PC via a disc drive — if you insert an infected disc — or via the Internet. A worm is a self-copying program that spreads through email attachments; it replicates itself and sends a copy to everyone in an address book. A Trojan horse is disguised as a useful program; it may affect data security. Spyware collects information from your PC without your consent. Most spyware and adware (software that allows pop-ups — that is, advertisements that suddenly appear on your screen) is included with “free” downloads.

If you want to protect your PC, don’t open email attachments from strangers and take care when downloading files from the Web. Remember to update your anti-virus software as often as possible, since new viruses are being created all the time.

 

IV. Fill in the blanks.

1. Users have to enter a ____ to gain access to a network. 2. A ____ protects a company intranet from outside attacks. 3. A ____ is a person who uses their computer skills to enter computers and networks illegally. 4. _____ can infect your files and corrupt your hard drive. 5. You can download _____ from the Net; this type of software is available free of charge but protected by copyright. 6. Encoding data so that unauthorized users can’t read it is known as _____. 7. This company uses ____ techniques to decode (or decipher) secret data. 8. Most ____ is designed to obtain personal information without the user’s permission.

 

Lesson 4. Computer crimes

I. Read and translate the text.

The headlines tell us about computer crimes after they have been discovered. Hackers are arrested for using telephone and credit card numbers other than their own to acquire goods and money; someone with a distinctly different sense of humor infects software with a virus that causes fish to swim across the spreadsheet. Another someone changes all the scholarship information in the financial office, and yet another uses the company computer — on company time — to do a little freelance writing or software development for an outside client. These are not jokes. These are crimes.

Like most other technological advances, the computer is a tool, one that can be used for good or ill. You can save time with computers, writing better spelled and better typed papers. You can balance budgets, from the personal to professional; input and store and process and output all kinds of information; and send it around the world as fast as telephone lines and satellites can carry it. You can use computers to spy. To lie and cheat. To steal. To do harm.

Although peeking at someone’s private records may not seem a heinous crime, electronic trespass is a crime. Peekers who gain access to a co-worker’s personal file or to a neighbour’s checking account records are trespassing, just as they would be if they were physically in the bank. They have entered another’s computer system or file without permission — hence, illegally.

The problem of trespassing is compounded when data is altered or destroyed. Although there may sometimes be no intent to alter data and the changes are only the result of striking the wrong key, this is a very rare occurrence. In most cases, the trespasser has something to gain from the alterations. The gain may be real, as in stealing company secrets for example. The gain may be strictly personal and vengeful: changing hospital records or credit ratings, destroying social security records, or inserting false and defamatory information in a personal file. These crimes are serious, and they are costly.

Electronic funds transfers take money from one account and move it to another. Banks do this when authorized by legitimate customers. But bank employees have also been known to do it without authorization, directing the funds into their own accounts. The transfer of a million dollars will be quickly noted, but transfer of one-tenth of a cent from every customer’s monthly interest will not — and those fractional cents can quickly add up to many dollars.

Business and industry also have much to lose through electronic trespass. Information about new products, stock transfers, plans to acquire another company and other proprietary information can be worth millions of dollars to the company or its competitors.

The danger of computer’s misuse increases. We have an obligation to use computers responsibly — in ways that are not harmful to the society in which we live and work.

 

II. Look at the list of cybercrimes and discuss these questions.

1. Which crimes are the most dangerous? 2. Is it fair or unfair to pay for the songs, videos, books or articles that you download? Should copyright infringement be allowed online? 3. What measures can be taken by governments to stop cybercrime? 4. Do you think governments have the right to censor material on the Internet? 5. Personal information such as our address, salary, and civil and criminal records is held in databases by marketing companies. Is our privacy in danger?

Cybercrimes

•Piracy — the illegal copy and distribution of copyrighted software, games or music files

•Plagiarism and theft of intellectual property — pretending that someone else’s work is your own

•Spreading of malicious software

•Phishing (p assword h avesting f ishing) — getting passwords for online bank accounts or credit card numbers by using emails that look like they are from real organizations, but are in fact fake; people believe the message is from their bank and send their security details

•IPspooning — making one computer look like another in order to gain unauthorized access

•Cyberstalking — online harassment or abuse, mainly in chat rooms or newsgroups

•Distribution of indecent or offensive material

III. Write a summary of your discussion on PowerPoint and present it to the rest of the class.