What is Linux and why is it so popular?

Linux is an operating system (very much like UNIX) that has become very popular over the last several years.

Linux is as much a phenomenon as it is an operating system. To understand why Linux has become so popular, it is helpful to know a little bit about its history. The first version of UNIX was originally developed several decades ago and was used primarily as a research operating system in universities. High-powered desktop workstations from companies like Sun proliferated in the 1980s, and they were all based on UNIX. A number of companies entered the workstation field to compete against Sun: HP, IBM, Silicon Graphics, Apollo, etc. Unfortunately, each one had its own version of UNIX and this made the sale of software difficult. Windows NT was Microsoft’s answer to this marketplace. NT provides the same sort of features as UNIX operating systems — security, support for multiple CPUs, large-scale memory and disk management, etc. — but it does it in a way that is compatible with most Windows applications.

The entry of Microsoft into the high-end workstation arena created a strange dynamic. The proprietary operating systems owned by separate companies and the lack of a central authority in the UNIX world weaken UNIX, but many people have personal problems with Microsoft. Linux stepped into this odd landscape and captured a lot of attention.

The Linux kernel, created by Linus Torvalds, was made available to the world for free. Torvalds then invited others to add to the kernel provided that they keep their contributions free. Thousands of programmers began working to enhance Linux, and the operating system grew rapidly. Because it is free and runs on PC platforms, it gained a sizeable audience among hard-core developers very quickly.

In general, Linux is harder to manage than something like Windows, but offers more flexibility and configuration options.

Notes

Workstation — сетевой компьютер, использующий ресурсы сервера; to proliferate — распространять; high - end — мощный, профессиональный, высококачественный; высокого класса; с широкими функциональными возможностями.

 

1. Say what you have learnt from the text about Linux as an operating system.

2. Translate the 2-nd paragraph in writing.

3. Select the topical sentences in each paragraph of the text.

4. Summarise the text.

VIII. Read and translate the text. Do the assignments following it.

How Windows Vista works

The first version of Microsoft Windows hit the market in 1983. But unlike today’s versions of Windows, Windows 1.0 was not an operating system. It was a graphical user interface that worked with an existing OS called MS-DOS. Version 1.0 didn’t look much like newer versions, either — not even Windows 3.0, which many people think of as the first real version of Windows. Its graphics were simpler and used fewer colours than today’s user interfaces, and its windows could not overlap.

Windows has changed considerably since then. In the last 20 years, Microsoft has released numerous full-fledged versions of the operating system. Sometimes, newer versions are significantly different from older ones, such as the change from Windows 3.1 to Windows 95. Other new releases have seemed more like enhancements or refinements of the older ones, such as the multiple consumer versions of the OS released from 1995 to 2001.

Microsoft’s newest version of its operating system is Windows Vista. For many users, upgrading to Vista won’t seem as dramatic as the upgrade from 3.1 to Windows 95. But Windows Vista has a number of new features, both in the parts that you can see and the parts that you can’t.

At its core, Windows Vista is still an operating system. It has two primary behind-the-scenes jobs:

· Managing hardware and software resources, including the processor, memory, storage and additional devices.

· Allowing programs to work with the computer’s hardware.

If all goes well, this work is usually invisible to the user, but it’s essential to the computer’s operation.

Notes

full - fledged — окончательно готовый, полностью отработанный (напр., о разработанной системе программного обеспечения); enhancement — модернизация; совершенствование; расширение (напр., возможностей программных средств); behind - the - scenes — негласный

1. Say what you have learnt from the text about Windows Vista.

2. Ask your group-mates 10 questions on the text.

3. Select the topical sentences in each paragraph of the text.

4. Retell the text.

IX. Read and translate the text.

GUI operating systems

The term “user interface” refers to the standard procedures that the user follows in order to interact with a computer. In the late 1970s and early 80s, the way users accessed computer systems was very complex. They had to memorize and type a lot of commands just to see the contents of a disk, to copy files or to respond to a single prompt. In fact, it was only experts who used computers, so there was no need for a user-friendly interface.

When computers were first introduced in the 1940s and 50s, every program written had to provide instructions that told the computer how to use devices such as the printer, how to store information on a disk, as well as how to perform several other tasks not necessarily related to the program. The additional program instructions for working with hardware devices were very complex, and time-consuming. Programmers soon realized it would be smarter to develop one program that could control the computer’s hardware, which other programs could have used when they needed it. With that, the first operating system was born.

Today, operating systems control and manage the use of hardware devices such as the printer or mouse. They also provide disk management by letting you store information in files. The operating system also lets you run programs such as the basic word processor. Lastly, the operating system provides several of its own commands that help you to use the computer.

DOS is the most commonly used PC operating system. DOS is an abbreviation for disk operating system. DOS was developed by a company named Microsoft. MS-DOS is an abbreviation for “Microsoft DOS”. When IBM first released the IBM PC in 1981, IBM licensed DOS from Microsoft for use on the PC and called it PC-DOS. From the users’ perspective, PC-DOS and MS-DOS are the same, each providing the same capabilities and commands.

The version of DOS release in 1981 was 1.0. Over the past decade, DOS has undergone several changes. Each time the DOS developers release a new version, they increase the version number.

Windows NT (new technology) is an operating system developed by Microsoft. NT is an enhanced version of the popular Microsoft Windows 3.0, 3.1 programs. NT requires a 386 processor or greater and 8 Mb of RAM. For the best NT performance, you have to use a 486 processor with about 16 Mb or higher. Unlike the Windows, which runs on top of DOS, Windows NT is an operating system itself. However, NT is DOS compatible. The advantage of using NT over Windows is that NT makes better use of the PC’s memory management capabilities.

OS/2 is a PC operating system created by IBM. Like NT, OS/2 is DOS compatible and provides a graphical user interface that lets you run programs with a click of a mouse. Also like NT, OS/2 performs best when you are using a powerful system. Many IBM-based PCs are shipped with OS/2 preinstalled.

In 1984, Apple produced the Macintosh, the first computer with a mouse and a graphical user interface (GUI). Macs were designed with one clear aim: to facilitate interaction with the computer. A few years later, Microsoft launched Windows, another operating system based on graphics and intuitive tools. Nowadays, computers are used by all kinds of people, and as a result there is a growing emphasis on accessibility and user-friendly systems.

A GUI makes use of a WIMP environment: w indows, i cons, m enus and p ointer. The background of the screen is called the desktop, which contains labeled pictures and icons. These icons represent files or folders. Double-clicking a folder opens a window which contains programs, documents, or more nested folders. When in folder, a user can launch a program or document by double-clicking the icon, or drag it to another location. When running a program PC opens a window that lets one work with different tools. All the programs have a high level of consistency, with similar toolbars, menu bars, buttons and dialogue boxes. A modern OS also provides access to networks and allows multitasking, which means running several programs — and do various tasks — at the same time.

The most popular operating systems are:

•The Windows family — designed by Microsoft and used on most PCs. The most recent version is Windows Vista.

•Mac OS — created by Apple and used on Macintosh computers.

•Unix — a multi-user system, found on mainframes and workstations in corporate installations.

•Linux — open-source software developed under the GNU General public License. This means anybody can copy its source code, change it and distribute. It is used in computers, appliances and small devices.

•Windows Mobile — used on most PDAs and smartphones (PDAs incorporating mobile phones).

•Palm OS — used on Palm handed devices.

•RIM — used on BlackBerry communication devices. Developed by Research In Motion.

•The Symbian OS — used by some phone makers, including Nokia and Siemens.

These computer platforms differ in areas such as device installation, network connectivity or compatibility with application software.

 

X. Translate these terms into Russian. Use the dictionary or the Internet to help you.

User interface, procedure, tools, desktop, nested folders, launch a program, source code.

 

XI. Read the text again and decide which adjectives in the list describe a GUI best.

User-friendly; slow; accessible; text-based; intuitive; complex; graphics-based.

 

XII. Answer the questions.

1. What kind of OS was used in the early 80s: text-based or graphics-based? 2. What was the contribution of Macintosh computers to the development of graphic environments? 3. What does acronym WIMP stand for? 4. How do you run a program on a computer with a graphical interface? 5. What is multitasking? 6. Which multi-user OS is used on large, powerful computers? 7. What is the benefit of using open-source software, for example Linux? 8. Which Macintosh platform is used for pocket PCs, mobiles and portable media centers? 9. What does user-friendly mean? 10. Do you think most OS are user-friendly? Give your reasons.

 

Lesson 3. Software

 

I. Read and memorize the following words and word combinations:

to distinguish — отличать, различать, выделять, проводить различие

to encompass — охватывать, включать, заключать (в себе)

to signify — выражать, показывать, означать, быть признаком

to insulate — отделять, обособлять

to precede — предшествовать, предварять

to blur — делать неясным, затуманивать

to accomplish — совершать, выполнять, исполнять

arbitrary — условный, случайный, произвольный

accessory — дополнительный, вспомогательный, сопутствующий

feature — признак, черта, свойство, особенность, характеристика

debugger — программа отладки

ordered sequence of instructions — упорядоченная последовательность инструкций

 

II. Read and translate the text.

Computer software or just software is a general term used to describe a collection of computer programs, procedures and documentation that perform some tasks on a computer system. Software includes websites, programs, video games etc. that are coded by programming languages like C, C++, etc. “Software” is sometimes used in a broader context to mean anything which is not hardware but which is used with hardware, such as film, tapes and records.

Computer software is so called to distinguish it from computer hardware, which encompasses the physical interconnections and devices required to store and execute (or run) the software. At the lowest level, software consists of a machine language specific to an individual processor. A machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions which change the state of the computer from its preceding state. Software is an ordered sequence of instructions for changing the state of the computer hardware in a particular sequence. It is usually written in high-level programming languages that are easier and more efficient for humans to use (closer to natural language) than machine language. High-level languages are compiled or interpreted into machine language object code.

Practical computer systems divide software systems into three major classes: system software, programming software and application software, although the distinction is arbitrary, and often blurred.

System softwarehelps run the computer hardware and computer system. It includes: device drivers, diagnostic tools, operating systems, servers, utilities, windowing systems. The purpose of systems software is to insulate the applications programmer as much as possible from the details of the particular computer complex being used, especially memory and other hardware features, and such accessory devices as communications, printers, readers, displays, keyboards, etc.

Programming softwareusually provides tools to assist a programmer in writing computer programs, and software using different programming languages in a more convenient way. The tools include: compilers, debuggers, interpreters, linkers, text editors.

Application softwareallows end users to accomplish one or more specific (non-computer related) tasks. Typical applications include: industrial automation, business software, computer games, databases, educational software, medical software and etc. Businesses are probably the biggest users of application software, but almost every field of human activity now uses some form of application software.

Notes

System software – системное программное обеспечение (в отличие от прикладного); programming software – программное обеспечение для программирования; application software – прикладная программа; прикладное программное обеспечение; программа специального применения; utility – утилита (сервисная программа, обслуживающая программа, облегчающая работу с компьютером или пользование какими-либо другими программами)

III. Give the Russian equivalents.

To be used in a broader context; to distinguish from; to encompass the physical interconnections; to store and execute (or run); software preceding state; as much as possible; to insulate from; hardware features; accessory devices; to assist a programmer; groups of binary values; ordered sequence of instructions; high-level programming languages; closer to natural language; system software; programming software; application software; device drivers; diagnostic tools.

 

IV. Give the English equivalent.

Программное обеспечение для программирования; прикладная программа; вспомогательные устройства; делать неясным; системное программное обеспечение; упорядоченная последовательность инструкций; произвольный; отличать от; характеристика; программа отладки; предшествующий; компилятор; текстовый редактор; выполнять некоторые задачи; заключать (в себе).

V. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate form from the box.

To divide, to be used, to be written; to be coded, to encompass, to provide

1.It ____to describe a collection of computer programs. 2.Theseapplications ____.industrial automation, business software, educational software, medical software and etc. 3.Computer systems ____software systems into three major classes. 4.Programming softwareusually ____tools to assist a programmer in writing computer programs. 5. Programs, video games ____by programming languages. 6.Software usually ____in high-level programming languages.

VI. Answer the following questions.

1. What is computer software? 2. What does software encompass? 3. What does hardware include? 4. What are high level languages oriented to? 5. What major classes are software systems divided into? Characterize them shortly.

 

VII. Give a brief summary of the above text.