Translate the sentences into English.

1. Арматура - это важная составная часть железно-бетонных конструкций (стальные отдельные    стержни, железные сетки, каркасы, цепи, металлические листы), применяемая для усиления бетона.

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2. Бетон - один из важнейших строительных материалов, который был изобретен Римлянами. Это был строительный материал, который вел к большим инновациям в строительстве гражданских и промышленных зданий, состоял из пуццолана, чистого песка, который имел особенные свойства, когда его смешивали с глиной, и воды. Причем, водно-цементная пропорция влияет на крепость бетона. Бетоны подразделяются на особо тяжелые, тяжелые, легкие и особо легкие. По назначению различают бетоны обычные (для промышленных и гражданских зданий), дорожные, декоративные, специального назначения и др.

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5. Answer the questions:

1. Where and when did the first reference to cement concrete reinforced with steel or iron bars appear?

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2. What does the water-cement ratio influence on?

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3. What does Coignet describes in his book, which was published in 1861?

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4. What was probably the first application of reinforced concrete?

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5. What was early interest in reinforced concrete in Britain, as well as in the United States, for?

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6. What was the post-war necessity, which led to the rapid development of precast and prestressed members?

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Give your opinion on the topic

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7. Give a short summary of the text.

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Give annotation of the text

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ELEMENTS OF A BUILDING

The major elements of a building include the following: the foundation, which supports the building and provides stability; the structure, which supports all the imposed loads and transmits them to the foundation; the exterior walls, which may or may not be part of the primary supporting structure; the interior partitions, which also may or may not be part of the primary structure; the environmental-control systems, including the heating, ventilating, air-conditioning, lighting, and acoustical systems; the vertical transportation systems, including elevators, escalators, and stairways; communications, which may include such subsystems as intercommunications, public address, and closed-circuit television, as well as the more usual telephone-wiring systems; and the power, water supply, and waste disposal systems.

The structural design of a building depends greatly on the nature of the soil and underlying geologic conditions and modification by man of either of these factors.

Ground Conditions. Soils that have been modified in some way often perform differently, especially when other soil has been added to or mixed with existing soil, or when the soil has been made wetter or drier than normal, or when cement or chemicals such as lime have been added. Sometimes the soil under a proposed building varies so greatly over the entire site that a building simply cannot be constructed safely or economically.

Soil and geologic analyses are necessary, therefore, to determine whether a proposed building can be supported adequately and what would be the most effective and economical method of support.

Types of Foundations. The most common types of foundation systems are classified as shallow and deep. Shallow foundation systems are several feet below the bottom of the building; examples are spread footings and mats. Deep foundations extend several dozen feet below the building; examples are piles and caissons. The foundation chosen for any particular building depends on the strength of the rock or soil, magnitude of structural loads, and depth of groundwater level.

The most economical foundation is the reinforced-concrete spread footing, which is used for buildings in areas where the subsurface conditions present no unusual difficulties. The foundation consists of concrete slabs located under each structural column and a continuous slab under load-bearing walls.

Mat foundations are typically used when the building loads are so extensive and the soil so weak that individual footings would cover more than half the building area. A mat is a flat concrete slab, heavily reinforced with steel, which carries the downward loads of the individual columns or walls.

Piles are used primarily in areas where near-surface soil conditions are poor. They are made of timber, concrete, or steel and are located in clusters. The piles are driven down to strong soil or rock at a predetermined depth, and each cluster is then covered by a cap of reinforced concrete. A pile may support its load either at the lower end or by skin friction along its entire length. The number of piles in each cluster is determined by the structural load and the average load-carrying capacity of each pile in the cluster.

Caisson foundations are used when soil of adequate bearing strength is found below surface layers of weak materials such as fill or peat. A caisson foundation consists of concrete columns constructed in cylindrical shafts excavated under the proposed structural column locations. The caisson foundations carry the building loads at their lower ends, which are often bell-shaped.

New vocabulary:

Foundation – фундамент                                           structure - здание, сооружение

load – нагрузка                                                             to transmit to – передавать

exterior walls - наружные стены                             interior partition - интерьерная отделка

communication – связь                                               environmental-control system – система контроля

power – энергия                                                                           состояния окружающей среды

water supply - снабжение водой                              vertical transportation system - система вертикальной

waste disposal system – канализация                      транспортировки

soil – почва                                                                   to propose - предполагать, строить планы

adequately – адекватно                                            shallow - мелкий, поверхностный

deep – глубокий                                                           bottom – дно

extensive – обширный                                                pile - свая, столб

caisson – кессон                                                           magnitude – величина

depth – глубина                                                            groundwater level - уровень почвенных вод

slab – плита                                                                 subsurface – находящийся, лежащий под поверхностью

load-bearing wall - несущая стена                          cluster – группа

friction – сцепление                                                     peat – торф

cylindrical shaft - цилиндрическая колонна                           to excavate - копать, выкапывать