Classification of the phraseological units

various lines of approach have been used, and yet the boundaries of the set, its classifications and the place of phraseology in the vocabulary appear controvversial issues of present day linguistics.English and the Americans can be proud of a very rich set of dictionaries of word groups and idiomatic phrases. Their object is chiefly practical: colloquial phrases are considered an important characteristic feature of natural spoken English and stumbling block for foreigners. The choice of entries is not clear: some dictionaries of this kind include among their entries not only word combinations but also separate words interesting from the point of view of their etymology, motivation, or expressiveness, and, on the other hand, also greetings, proverbs, familiar quotations.Other dictionaries include grammatical information. The most essential theoretical problems remain not only unsolved but untackled except in some works on general linguistics. A more or less detailed grouping was given in the books on English idioms by L.P. Smith and W.Ball. But even the authors themselves do not claim their groupings should be regarded as classification. They show interest in the origin and etymology of the phrases from sea life, from agriculture, from sports, from hunting, etc.question of classification of phraseological units is mainly worked out in this country. Russian linguists, Academicians F.F. Fortunatov, A.A. Shakhmatov and others paved the way for serious syntactical analysis of phraseological units.scholars have shown a great interest in the theoretical aspects of the problem.special branch of linguistics termed phraseology came into being in its country. The most significant theories advanced for Russian phraseology are those are those by S.A. Larin and V.V. Vinogradov. As to the English language, the number of works of our linguistics devoted to phraseology is so great that it is impossible to enumerate them; suffice it to say that there are exist a comprehensive dictionary of English phraseology complid by A.V. Koonin. This dictionary sustained several editions and contains extensive bibliography and articles on some most important problems. The first doctoral thesis on this subject was by N.N. Amasova (1963)¹, then came the doctoral thesis by A.V. Koonin². The results were published in monographs. Prof. A.L. Smirnitskiy also devoted attention to this aspect in his book on lexicology. He considers a phraseological units to be similar to the word because of the idiomatic relationships between its parts resulting in semantic unity and permitting its introduction into speech as something complete.influence his classification exercised is much smaller than that of V.V. Vinogradov’s. the classification of V.V. Vinogradov is synchronic. He developed some points forst advanced by the Swiss linguistics Charles bally and gave a strong impetus to a purely lexicological treatment of the material. Thanks to him phraseological units were rigorousky defined as lexical complexes with specific semantic features and classified accordingly. His classification is based upon the motivation of the unit, i.e. the relationship existing between the meaning of the whole and the meaning of its component parts. The degree of motivation is correlated with the rigidity, indivisibility and semantic unity of the expression, and of substituting the whole by a single word. The classification is naturally developed for russian phraseology but we shall illustrate it with English examples. According to the type of motivation and the other above-mentioned features, three types of phraseological units are suggested:

1) Phraseological fusions (e.g. tit for tat) represent as their name suggests the highest stage of blending together. The meaning of components is completely absorbed by the meaning of the whole, by its expressiveness and emotional properties. Phraseological fusions are specific for every language anddo not lend themselves to literal translation into other language.

2) Phraseological unities are much more numerous. They are clearly motivated. The emotional quality is based upon the image created by the whole as in stick (to standfor) to one’s guns, to e.g. ‘refuse to change one’s statements or opiniopns in the face of opposition’, implying courage and integrity. The example reveals another characteristic of the type, namely the possibility of synonymic substitution, which can be only very limited. Some of these are eaily translated an even international, e.g. to know the way the wind is blowing.

3) Phraseological components are not only motivated but contain one component used in its direct meaning while the other is used figuratively: meet the demand, meet the necessity, meet the requirements. The mobility of this type in much greater, the substitutions are necessarily synonymical. It has been pointed out by N. Asomova¹ and A. V. Koonin² that hits classification, being developed for the Russian phraselogy, does not fit the specifically English features..N. Asomova’s approach is contextogical. She defines phraseological units of fixed context. Fixed context is defined as a context characterized by a specific and unchanging sequence of definite lexical components, and a peculiar semantic relationship between them. Units of fixed are subdivided into phrasemes and idioms. Phrasemes are always binary: one component has a phraseologically bound meaning the other serves as the determining context (small talk, small hours, small change). In idioms the new meaning created by the whole, though every element may have its original meaning weakened or even completely lost: in the nick of time’at the exact moment. Idioms may be motivated or demotivated. A motivated idioms is homonymous to a free phrase, but this phrase is used figuratively: take the bull by the horns ‘to danger without fear’. In the nick of time is time demotivated, because the word nick is obsolete. Both phrasemes and idioms may be movable (changeale) or immovable.interesting and clear-cut modification of V.V. Vinogradov’s scheme was suggested by the T.V. Stroyeva for the German language. She devides the whole bulk of phraseological units into two classes: unities and combinations. funсtion does not constitute a separate class but are included into unites, because the criterion of motivations and demotivation is different speakers, dependent on extra-linguistic factors, i.e. the history of the people and its culture.may occur in speech homonymous free phrases, very different in meaning.form and structure of a phraseological unity is rigid and unchangable. Its stability is often supported by the rhyme, synonymy, parallel construction, etc. Phraseological combinations, on the contrary, reveal a change of meaning only in of the components and this semantic shift does not result in expressiveness. A.V. Koonin is interested both in discussing fundamentals and in investigating special problems. His books, and especially the dictionary he compiled and also the dissertation of this numerous pupils are particularly useful as they provide an up-to - date survey of the entire field. A.V. Koonin¹ thinks that phraseology must develop as an independent linguistic science and not as a part of lexicology. His classification of phraseological units is based on the functions the units fulfil in speech. They may be nominating (a bull in a china shop), interjectional (a pretty kettle of fish), communicative (familiarity breeds contempt), or nominating-communicative (pull somebody’s leg). Further classifications into subclasses depends on whether the units are changeable or unchangeable, whether the meaning of the one element remains free, and, more generally, on the independence between the meaning of the elements and the meaning of the set expression. Much attention is devoted to different types of variation: synonymic, pronominal, etc. After this brief review of possible semantic classification, we pass on to formal and functional classification based on the fact a set expression functioning in speech is in distribution similar to definite classes of words, whereas structurally it can be identified with various types of sintagms or with complete sentences.shall distinguish set expressions that are:phrases: the root of trouble;phrases: put one’s best foot forward;phrases: as good as gold; red as cherry adverbial phrases: from head to foot;phrases: in the course of;phrases: as long as, on the other hand;phrases: Well, I never!stereotyped sentence also introduced into speech as a ready-made formula may be illustrated by Never say die! ‘never give up hope’, take your time’ do not hurry’. The above classification takes into consideration not only the type of component parts but also the functioning the whole, thus, tooth and nail is not a nominal but an adverbial unit, because it serves to modify a verb (e.g. fight tooth and nail); the identically structured lord and master is a nominal phrase. Moreover, not every nominal phrase is used in all syntactic functions possible for nouns. Thus, a bed of roses or a bed nails and for learn hope are used only predicatively. Within each of these classes a further subdivision is necessary. The following list is not meant to be exhaustive, but to give only principal features of the types. I.expressions functioning like nouns:+ N: maiden name ‘the surname of a woman before she was married’; Brains truts ‘a committee of experts’ or ‘a number of reputedly well informed persons choose to answer questions of general interst without preparation’; family jewels ‘shameful secrets of the CIA’¹’s+N: cat’s paw ‘one who is used for the convenience of a cleverer and stronger person’ (the expressions comes from a fumble in which a monkey wanting to eat some chestnuts they were on a hot stove, but not wishing to burn himself while getting them, seized a cat and holding its paw in his own used it to knock the chestnuts to the ground)’s choice, a set expression used there is no choice at all, when a person to take what is offered or nothing (Thomas Hobson, a 17th century London stableman, made every person hiring horses take the next in order).+N: ladies’ man’ one who likes special effort to charm or please woman’.+prp+N: the arm of the law;in the cupboard;+A: knight errant (the phrase is today applied to any chivalrous man ready to helped and protect oppressed and helpess people).+and+N: lord and master ‘husband’;the world and his wife (a more complicated form);and file ‘the primary working members of an organization’ (the origin of this expression is military lifr, it denotes common soldiers); ways and means ‘methods of overcoming difficulties’.+ N: green room’the general reception room of a theatre (it is said formerly such rooms had their walls colored green to relieve the strain on the strain on the actors’ eyes after the tea’: forty winks ‘a short nap’.

N+subordinate clause: ships that pass in thenight ‘chance acquaintances’.. set expressions functioning like verbs:+N: take advantage; +and +V: puck and choose;

V + (one’s) +N+(prp): snap one’s fingers at;

V+one +N give one the bird ’to fire sb’;

V+ subordinate clause: see how the land lies ‘to discover the state of affairs’.. Set expressions functioning like adjectives

A+and + A: high and mighty:

(as) + as + N as old as the hills, as mad as a hatter. Set expressions are oftenas predicative but not attributively. In the latter function they are replacedcompounds.. Set expressions functioning like adverbs;big group containing many different types of units, some of them with a high frequency index, neutral in style and devoid of expressiveness, others expressive.

N+N; tooth and nail;

prp+N: by heart of course, against the grain;

adv+prp+N: once in a blue moon;

prp+N+or+N: by hook or by crook;

cj+clause: before one can say Jaxk Robinson.. Set expressions functioning like prepositions:

prp+N+prp: in consequence of.should be noted that the tyre is often but not always characterized by theof article. C f: by reason of, on the ground of.. Set expressions functioning like interjections:are often structured as imperative sentences:(one’s) soul! Hang it (all)!review can only be brief and very general but it will not be difficult for the reader to supply the missing links. The list of types gives a clear notion of the contradictory nature of set expressions: structured like phrases they function like words.is one more type of combinations, also rigid and introduced into discourse ready- made but differing from all the types given above in so far as it is impossible to find its equivalent among the parts of speech. These are formulas used as complete utterances and syntactically shaped like sentences, such as the well-known American maxim Keep smiling! Or the British Keep Britain tidy. Take it easy..I. Smirnitsky was the first among scholars who paid attention to sentences that can be treated as complete formulas, such as How do you do? or I beg your pardon, It takes all kinds to make the world, Can the leopard change his sports? They differ from all the combinations so far dicussed, because they are not equivalent to words in dictribution and are semantically analyzable. The formulas discussed by N.N. Amosova ¹ are on the contrary semantically specific, e.g. save your breath ‘shut up’ or tell it to the marines. As it often happens with set expressions, there are different explanations for their origin. (One of the suggested origins is tell that to the horse marines; such a corps being nonexistent, as marines are a sea going force, the last expression means ‘tell it to someone who does not exist, because real people will not believe it). Very often such formulas, formally identical to sentences are in reality used only as insertions into other sentences:cap fits ‘the statement is true’ (e.g.”He called me a liar.” “Well, you should know if the cap fits.”) Compare also:would not melt if his mouth; His bark is worth than his bite.is a pressing need for criteria distinguishing set expressions not only from free phrases but from compound words as well. One of these criteria is the formal integrity of words which had been repeatedly mentioned and may be best illustrated by an example with the word breakfast borrowed from W.K. Graff. His approach combines contextual analysis and diachronic observations. He is interested in graduations from free construction through the formula to compound and then simple word. In showing the border line between a word and a formulary expression, W.L. Graff speaks about the word breakfast a derived from the set expression to breakfast, where break was a verb with a specific meaning inherent to it only in combination with fast which means ‘keeping from food’. Hence it was possible to say: And knight and square had broke their fast!². The fact that it was a phrase and not a word is clearly indicated by the conjunctional treatment of the verb and syntactical treatment of the noun. With an analytical language like English this conjunctional test is, unfortunately, not always applicable.would also be misleading to be guided in distinguishing between set expressions and compound words by semantic considerations, there been no rigorous criteria for differentiating between one complex notion and a combination of two or more notions. The references of component words are lost within the whole of a set expression, no less than within a compound word. What is, for instance, the difference in this respect between the set expression point of view and the compound view point? And if there is any, what are the formal criteria which can help to estimate it?with semantic unity many authors mention the unity of syntactic function. This unity of semantic function is obvious in the predicate of the main clause in the following quotation from J. Wain which is a simple predicate, through rendered by a set expression:

…the government we had in those days, when we (Great Britain) were the world’s richest country did not give a damn whether the kids grew up with richest or not…syntactic unity, however, is nit specific for all set expressions.types of substitution test can be useful in showing us the points of similarly and difference between the words and set expressions. In the forts procedure a whole set expression is replayed within context by a synonymous word in such a way that the meaning g of the utterance remains unchanged, e.g. he was in a brown study-he was gloomy. In the second type of substitiontest only an element of the set expression is replaced, e.g. (as) white as chalk-(as) white as milk-(as) white as snow, or it gives me the blues-it gives him the blues-it gives one the blues.the this second type it is the set expression that is retained, although it composition or referential meaning may change.applying the first type of procedure one obtains a criterion for the degree of equivalence between a set expression and a word. One more example will help to make the point clear. The set expression dead beat can be substituted by a single word exhausted. E.g.:sir. Delivered by a corporal of the 33^rd. dead beat with hard riding, sir (Shaw).last sentence may be changed into Exhausted with hard riding, sir. The lines will keep their meaning and remain grammatically correct. The possibility of this substitution permits us to regard this set expression as a word equivalent. The unity of syntagmatic function is present in this case also, but the criterion equivalence to a single word cannot be applied, because substitution by a simple word is impossible. Such equivalents is therefore only relative, it is not universally applicable and cannot be accepted as a general criterion for designing these units.equivalence of words and set expressions should not be taken too literally but treated as a useful abstraction, only in the sense we have stated. The main point if difference between a word and a set expression is the divisibility of the latter into separately structured elements which is constructed to the structural integrity of words. Although equivalents to word in being introduced into speech ready-made, a set expression is different from them, because it can be resolved into words, whereas words are resolved into morphemes. In compound words the process of integration is more advanced. Morphological divisibility is evident when one of the elements (but not the last one as in a compound word) is subjected to morphological change. This problems has been investigated by N.N. Amosova, A.V. Koonin and others. N.N. Amosiva gives the following examples:played second fiddle to her in his father’s heart (Galsworthy).

…She disliked playing second fiddle (Christie).play second fiddle ‘to occupy a secondary, subordinate position”.must be rather fun having a skeleton in the cupboard (Miline).skeletons in the cupboard (Ibid)..V. Koonin¹ shows the possibility of morphological changes in adjectives forming part of phraseological units:’s deader than a doornail.made the night blacker than pitch.Centerville’s have blue blood, for instances, the bluest in the England.goes without saying that the possibility of a morphological change cannot regularly serve as a distinctive features, because it may take place only in a limited number of set expressions (verbal or nominal).question of syntactic ties within a set expression is even more controversial. All the authors agree set expressions (for the most part) represent one member of the sentence, but opinions differ as to whether this means that there are no syntactical ties within set expressions themselves. Actually the number of words in a sentence is not necessarily to the number of its member.existence of syntactical relations within a set expression can be proved by the possibility of syntactical transformations (however limited) or inversion of elements and the substitution of the variable member, all this without destroying the set expression as such. By a variable element we mean the element of set expression which is structurally necessary but free to vary lexically. It is usually indicated in dictionaries by indefinite pronouns, often interested in round brackets:(somebody’s) hair stand on end ‘to give the greatest astonishment pr fright to another person’;(one’s) wild oats ‘to indulge in dissipation while young’.word in brackets can be freely substituted:(my? your, her, the reader’s) hair stand on end.sequence of constant elements may be broken and some additional words inserted which, splitting the set expessions, do not destroy it, but establish syntactical ties with its regular elements. The examples are chiefly limited to verbal expressions, e.g. the chairman broke the ice-Ice was broken by chairman; He has burnt his boats and… -Having burnt his boats he…substitution is illustrated by the following examples: “Hold your tongue, Lady L. “Hold yours, my good fool”¹these facts are convincing manifestations of syntactical ties within the units in question. Containing the same elements these units can change their morphological from and syntactical structure; they may be called changeable set expressions, as contrasted to stereotyped or unchangeable set expressions, admitting no change either morphological or syntactical. The examples discussed in the previous paragraph mostly belong to this second type indivisible and unchangeable; they are nearer o a word than their more flexible counterparts.opposition is definitely correlated with structural properties.these examples proving the divisibility and variability of set expressionslight on the difference between them and words.expressions have their own specific features, which enhance their stability and conhesion. These are their euphonic, imaginative and connotative qualities. It has been often pointed out that many set expressions are distinctly rhythmical, contain alliteration, rhyme, imagery, contrast, are based on puns, etc. these features have always been treated from the point of view of style and expressiveness. Their cementing function is perhaps no less important.these qualities ensure the strongest possible contact between the elements, give them their peculiar muscular feel, so that in pronouncing something like stuff and nonsense the speaker can enjoy some release of pent-up nervous tension. Consider the following sentence:would come back to her safe and sound¹.and sound is somehow more reassuring that the synonyms word uninjured, which could have been used.euphonic and connotative qualities also prevent substitution for another purely linguistics, though not semantic, reason-any substitution would destroy the euphonic effect. Consider, for instance, the result of synonymic substitution in the above alliterative pair safe and sound. Secure and uninjured has the same denotatonal meaning but sound so dull and trivial that the phrase may be considered destroyed and one is justified in saying that safe and sound admits no substitution.qualities are characteristic of almost all set expressions. They are especially marked in such pairs as far and wide, far and near ‘many places both near and distant; by fits and starts ‘irregularly’; heart and soul ‘with complete devotion to cause’. Rhythm is combined with reiteration in the following well-known phrases:and more, on and on, one by one, through and through.occurs in many cases:and parcel ‘an essential and necessary part’;pillar to post; in for a penny, in for a pound; head over hills; withoutor any reason; pick of the pops; a bee in one’s bonnet; the -why and -.’s interesting to note that alliterative phrases often contain obsolete elements, not used elsewhere. In the above expressions these are main, an obsolete synonym to might, and rack, probably a variant of wreck.one the elements becomes obsolete and falls out of the language, demotivation may set in, and this, paradoxical through it may seem, also tends to increase the stability and constancy of a set expression. The process is completed, because the preservation of obsolete elements in set expression is in its turn assisted by all the features mentioned above. Some more examples of set expressions containing obsolete elements are: hue and cry;loud clamour about something’ (a synonymic pair with the obsolete word hue);leave in the lurch ‘to leave in a helpless position’(with the obsolete noun lurch meaning ‘ambish’); not a whit ‘not at all’ (with the obsolete word whit-a variant of Wight ‘creature’, ‘thing’-not used outside this expression and meaning ‘the smallest thin imaginable’).is also characteristic of set expressions:and square ‘honest’;hook or by crook ‘by any method, right or wrong’ (its elements are not onlybut synonymous).and dry was originally used about ships, meaning ‘out of the water, aground; at present it is mostly used figuratively in several metaphorical meanings: ‘isolated’, ‘left without help’, ‘out of date’. This capacity more feature that makes set expressions similar to words.stylistic features contracting set expressions into unit of fixed context are simile, contrast, metaphor and synonymy. For example:like as two peas, as old as hills and older than the hills (simile);beginning to end, for love or money, more or less, sooner or later (contrast);lame duck, a pack of lies, arms race, to swallow the pill, in a nutshell metaphor); by leap and bounds, pround and haughty (synonymy).few more combinations of different features in the same phrase are:good as gold, as pleased as Punch, as a fiddle (alliteration, simile);or never, to kill or cure (alliteration and contrast).rarely there is an international pun:cross as two sticks means ‘very angry’.play upon words makes the phrase jocular. The comic effect is created by the absurdity of the combination making use of two different meanings of the word cross a and n.all practical purposes the boundary between set expressions and free phrases is a vague. The point that is to be kept in mind is that there are also some structural features of a set expression correlated with its invariability.are, of course, other cases when set expressions lose their metaphorical pictiresque ness, having preserved some fossilized words and phrases, the meaning of which is no longer correctly understood. Fpr instance, the expression buy a pig in a poke may be still used, although poke ‘bag’ (c.f. pouch, pocket) does not occur in other contexts. Expression taken from obsolete sport and occurpations may survive in their new figurative meaning. in these cases the euphonic qualities of the expression are even more important. A muscular and irreducible phrase is also memorable. The muscular feeling is of special importance in slogans and battle cries. Saint George and Dragon for Merrie England, the medieval battle cry, was a rhythmic unit to which a man on a horse could swing his sword. The modern Schollarship not battleship! Can be conveniently scanned by a marching crowd.sum up, the memorable ness of a set expressions, as well as its unity, is assisted by various factors within expression such as rhythm, rhythmic, alliteration, imagery and even the muscular feeling one gets when pronouncing them.

Semantic classification:

The degree of semantic isolationdegree of disinformation

1. Opaque in meaning (трудный для понимания) the meaning of the individual words can’t be summed together to produce the meaning of the whole..: to kick the bucket = to diecontains no clue to the idiomatic meaning of this expressiondegree of semantic isolation is the highest. => phraseological fusions

2. Semi-opaque one component preserves its direct meaning.: to pass the buck = to pass responsibility - свалить ответственность

=> phraseological unities

3. Transparentboth components in their direct meaning but the combination acquires figurative sense.: to see the light = to understand

=> phraseological combinations

Koonin: “Structural-semantic classification”

. Nominative hard nut to crack

2. Nominative -communicative ice is broken

3. Interjectional & modal

(Emotions, feelings), my eye! (= Oh, my God!)sure as eggs is eggs (просто, как 2х2)

4. Communicative (proverbs, sayings) is no smoke without fire.

Nominative:: crocodile tears: as mad as a hatter, as cool as a cucumber: by & by, to & fro: to live like a lord

. Phraseology, classification of phraseological units. Vinogradov’s classification of phraseological units:

a) phraseological combinations (сочетания). b) unities (единства). c) fussions (сокращения).

a) phraseological combinations - are word - groups with a partially changed meaning. They may be said to be clearly motivated, that is the meaning of the units can be easily deduced from the meanings of its constituents.

Ex. to be good at smth, to have a bite….

b) unities - are word - groups with a completely changed meaning, that is, the meaning of the unit doesn’t correspond to the meanings of its constituent parts.

Ex. to lose one’s head (to be out of one’s mind), to lose one’s heart to smb. (to fall in love).

c) fusions - are word - groups with a completely changed meaning but, in contrast to the units, they are demotivated, that is, their meaning can’t be deduced from the meanings of its constituent parts.

Ex. to come a cropper (to come to disaster).

The Koonin’s classification is the latest outstanding achievement in the Russian theory of phraseology. The classification is based on the combined structural - semantic principle and it also considers the quotient of stability of phraseological units.

I. Nominative phraseological units - are represented by word - groups, including the ones with one meaningful word, and coordinative phrases of the type wear and tear, well and good.

II. Nominative - communicative phraseological units - include word - groups, of the type to break the ice - the ice is broken, that is, verbal word - groups which are transformed into a sentence when the verb is used in the Passive Voice.

III. Phraseological units - which are neither nominative nor communicative include interjectional word - groups.

IV. Communicative phraseological units - are represented by proverbs and sayings.

Кунин Classification:

1. Одновершинные (with one peak)

(one peak phraseological units, one form word, one notional).: to leave for goodheart bay - быть в отчаянном положении

2. Phrasemes with the structure of subordinate or coordinate word combination..: a bitter pill to swallowthe world & his wife

3. Partly predicative

(a word + subordinate clause).: It was the last straw that broke the camel’s back

4. Verbal with (infinitive, passive).: to eat like a wolfRubicon is crossed

5. Phrasal units with a simple or complex sentence structure.: There is a black sheep in every flock.was the last straw that broke the camel’s back

Phraselogy as a science reveals the peculiarities of the praseological units and defines their place among the other units of the language. In addition, semantic, structural, grammatical, expressive-stylistic characteristics of phraseological unit, peculiarities of their use, classification, consideration sources of the ways of the renewing the phraselogical fund of the language are studied. The tasks of the historical phraseology are the study of their origin, also studying various changes of semantics, structure, lexical composition, stylistic characteristics of phraseological units.all practical purposes the boundary between set expressions and free phrases is a vague. The point that is to be kept in mind is that there are also some structural features of a set expression correlated with its invariability.sum up, the memorable ness of a set expressions, as well as its unity, is assisted by various factors within expression such as rhythm, rhythme, alliteration, imagery and even the muscular feeling one gets when pronouncing them.

english phraseological newspaper style