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Brick. Terracotta. Ceramic tiles ⇐ ПредыдущаяСтр 10 из 10
Brick, stone, and timber are known to be the oldest building materials. Bricks belong to artificial (man-made) materials. Their production started in prehistoric times. Since then they have been produced and tested in all types of climate and in many countries. Thousands of years ago the builders in Egypt.i I ready knew the advantages of bricks and used them for construction. In those days the production of bricks was quite different from the modern one: bricks wore produced not by burning but by drying in the sun, there being much sunshine in Egypt all the year round. Brick work was also popular in Rome, there being very few growing forests and as a result little timber there. In modern times bricks can be made of concrete, mortar, of burnt clay and of a combination of some other substances. For example, different types of clay and shale can be used as raw materials. Accordingly, bricks produced nowadays have different sizes, shapes, colors, and textures. Bricks also vary with the method of fabrication and temperatures of burning. It should be noted that some types of brick, such as, for example, salmon bricks are under burnt and highly porous. Naturally, their strength is extremely poor. This property of salmon brick should be taken into account when choosing brick material for construction. But there exist many other types of brick that are extremely strong and almost glass hard. Between these extremes there lie some other types of brick with different properties. Brick properties are of great importance and should be taken into account while choosing material for construction purposes.
Вариант 30. It is a well-known fact that there exist many types of bricks. Some of them are highly usable in construction while others are not popular because of their poor properties. Between these types there are various types that are used for specific purposes. For example, ceramic tiles. Ceramic tiles is a burned-clay product. It is mainly used for decorative and sanitary purposes. A ceramic tile consists of a clay body (корпус) covered with decorative glaze. Ceramic tiles are usually flat in form. They are extremely various. They vary in size from about 1/2 in square to more than 6 in. Their shapes are widely variable: squares, rectangles, hexagons, and others. Ceramic tiles are produced from clays of different colors. But — strange as it is — their colors do not depend on the colors of clays they are made of. Tiles are glazed, as a rule, and their color depends on the color of the glaze they are covered with. It is quite natural that ceramic tiles in practice exist in wide variety of colors: from pure whites to deep darks and blacks. Ceramic tiles are applied to the covered surface by means of a mortar or some adhesive substance. They are usually applied with the thinnest mortar joint. Terracotta belongs to decorative types of brick. They are produced of burned clay. Their structural properties being similar to the properties of brick, they are often used in a manner similar to brick. Terracotta also exists in a wide variety of colors from pure whites to blacks. Their color depends on the color of the glaze they are covered with. Different adhesive substances are used for the application of terracotta to the surfaces being decorated with them.
Вариант 31. PLAN STRUCTURE OF TOWN The plan structure of a town is a harmonious system of interrelated parts and elements of an urban territory within the limits of the town. The territory of a town is divided into two basic parts — residential and non-residential. Territory beyond the limits of the town includes forest parks, rest and recreational areas, reserve territory for urban development, farm lands, etc. Depending on natural conditions and the town's economic profile the plan structure may be of an open or close layout. A close layout is characteristic of towns with a compact plan. It develops as one whole within the limits of clearly defined parameters. With the further town's development, the plan structure undergoes certain changes.
An open layout is characterized by consistent and free development in definite directions, remaining at every phase a part of the whole. In every concrete instance, the selection of the plan structure takes into account many diverse and interrelated factors. The plan structure of a town is reflected in the general plan. It takes into account industrial development, economic and transportation patterns, the topography of the locality, natural and climatic conditions and other factors. Вариант 32. FORMATION OF NEW TOWNS The conditions for the emergence, existence and further development of new towns arc manifold and connected with the emergence of industrial enterprises and other places of employment serving as the basic factor in the formation of new towns. The components contributing to the formation of new towns are: enterprises of various sectors of the mining and processing industries, heavy, light and food industries, power and transportation, higher educational institutions, scientific research institutes, public service facilities, resort and tourist enterprises and others. People employed in basic industry constitute the basic population group. As a rule, major industrial enterprises are located in non-residential areas. In the USSR, based on many years of practice, approximate sizes have been established for the territory of such enterprises, depending on their capacity and work force. An increase in production capacity does not necessarily involve a proportional increase in the basic population group but depends on the level of automation and other technological advances. Along with the basic population group, there emerges a service population group employed in the following; Municipal administrative and public institutions. Cultural and educational institutions (schools, libraries, clubs, etc.). Medical establishments (polyclinics, hospitals, etc.). A number of food and light industries servicing the needs of the town. Shopping centres and public service establishments. Local transport and public utilities facilities. Вариант 33. TOWN CENTRE Occupying an important place in the plan structure of a town is the system of public centres differing in their function and location. The town centre as a place of the greatest concentration of public life is of particular importance. As a rule town centres are built up with administrative and commercial buildings, public and cultural establishments, large shops, and places of entertainment in a unified architectural ensemble dominating the urban pattern and in harmony with its general plan structure. From the viewpoint of convenience for the public, it is advisable to set the town centre in the geometric centre of the town. But it may often be necessary to locate the town centre away from the geometric centre due to the particular conditions of the territory, location of highways and the existing building pattern. Thus, in large seaport towns the centres are often located near the water. An example of a regular plan structure is the new shopping centre in the city of Abidjan (Ivory Coast). The centre provides for a flexible composition ensuring steady development using modern engineering infrastructure and the construction of high-rise buildings with 11-14 or more stories. The western sites are used for administrative buildings, the eastern — for the shopping; located to the north of the centre are cultural and sports facilities. The separation of automotive and pedestrian traffic is well planned. The central axis highway connects the centre to all the districts of the city. The population of the central district located on the Banko plateau is more than 50,000.
Вариант 34. MODERN CITY PLANNING Modern city planning is characterized by the rapid urban growth and the tendency for several towns to be knitted together into large agglomerations with a corresponding increase in population and territory. This results in the best farm lands being used by the expanding urban territory and in the despoliation of the natural landscape and forests, the pollution of water areas and the atmosphere. The continued growth of cities with their solid masses of masonry structures and high building density results in insufficient insolation and greenery and hence a decline in the urban microclimate. Urban growth increases average travel time. and mobility of people, there is a sharp increase In the intensity of road haulage and the number of transportation facilities. On roads and streets, as is known, the number of vehicles increases several times faster -than the road network causing supersaturation by transportation of the street network and traffic congestion which is already to be observed in many large cities of the United States and other capitalist countries. The main problem facing large modern cities is to make the most effective use of urban land without further encroachment on adjacent land.
Приложение. Таблица 1- Список неправильных глаголов.
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