Brick. Terracotta. Ceramic tiles

Brick, stone, and timber are known to be the oldest building materials. Bricks belong to artificial (man-made) materials. Their production started in prehistoric times. Since then they have been produced and tested in all types of climate and in many countries. Thousands of years ago the builders in Egypt.i I ready knew the advantages of bricks and used them for construction. In those days the production of bricks was quite different from the modern one: bricks wore produced not by burning but by drying in the sun, there being much sunshine in Egypt all the year round. Brick work was also popular in Rome, there being very few growing forests and as a result little timber there.

In modern times bricks can be made of concrete, mortar, of burnt clay and of a combination of some other substances. For example, different types of clay and shale can be used as raw materials. Accordingly, bricks produced nowadays have different sizes, shapes, colors, and textures. Bricks also vary with the method of fabrication and temperatures of burning. It should be noted that some types of brick, such as, for example, salmon bricks are un­der burnt and highly porous. Naturally, their strength is extremely poor. This property of salmon brick should be taken into account when choosing brick material for construction. But there exist many other types of brick that are extremely strong and almost glass hard. Between these extremes there lie some other types of brick with different properties. Brick properties are of great importance and should be taken into account while choosing material for construction purposes.

 

Вариант 30.

It is a well-known fact that there exist many types of bricks. Some of them are highly usable in construction while others are not popular be­cause of their poor properties. Between these types there are various types that are used for specific purposes. For example, ceramic tiles.

Ceramic tiles is a burned-clay product. It is mainly used for decora­tive and sanitary purposes.

A ceramic tile consists of a clay body (корпус) covered with decora­tive glaze. Ceramic tiles are usually flat in form. They are extremely vari­ous. They vary in size from about 1/2 in square to more than 6 in. Their shapes are widely variable: squares, rectangles, hexagons, and others. Ceramic tiles are produced from clays of different colors. But — strange as it is — their colors do not depend on the colors of clays they are made of. Tiles are glazed, as a rule, and their color depends on the color of the glaze they are covered with. It is quite natural that ceramic tiles in practice exist in wide variety of colors: from pure whites to deep darks and blacks. Ceramic tiles are applied to the covered surface by means of a mortar or some adhesive substance. They are usually applied with the thinnest mor­tar joint.

Terracotta belongs to decorative types of brick. They are produced of burned clay. Their structural properties being similar to the properties of brick, they are often used in a manner similar to brick. Terracotta also exists in a wide variety of colors from pure whites to blacks. Their color depends on the color of the glaze they are covered with. Different adhe­sive substances are used for the application of terracotta to the surfaces being decorated with them.

 

Вариант 31.

PLAN STRUCTURE OF TOWN

The plan structure of a town is a harmonious system of interrelated parts and elements of an urban territory within the limits of the town.

The territory of a town is divided into two basic parts — resi­dential and non-residential.

Territory beyond the limits of the town includes forest parks, rest and recreational areas, reserve territory for urban develop­ment, farm lands, etc.

Depending on natural conditions and the town's economic pro­file the plan structure may be of an open or close layout.

A close layout is characteristic of towns with a compact plan. It develops as one whole within the limits of clearly defined para­meters. With the further town's development, the plan structure undergoes certain changes.

An open layout is characterized by consistent and free develop­ment in definite directions, remaining at every phase a part of the whole.

In every concrete instance, the selection of the plan structure takes into account many diverse and interrelated factors.

The plan structure of a town is reflected in the general plan. It takes into account industrial development, economic and transportation patterns, the topography of the loca­lity, natural and climatic conditions and other factors.

Вариант 32.

FORMATION OF NEW TOWNS

The conditions for the emergence, existence and further deve­lopment of new towns arc manifold and connected with the emer­gence of industrial enterprises and other places of employment serving as the basic factor in the formation of new towns.

The components contributing to the formation of new towns are: enterprises of various sectors of the mining and processing industries, heavy, light and food industries, power and transportation, higher educational institutions, scientific research institutes, public service facilities, resort and tourist enterprises and others. People employed in basic industry constitute the basic po­pulation group.

As a rule, major industrial enterprises are located in non-re­sidential areas. In the USSR, based on many years of practice, approximate sizes have been established for the territory of such enterprises, depending on their capacity and work force. An in­crease in production capacity does not necessarily involve a pro­portional increase in the basic population group but depends on the level of automation and other technological advances.

Along with the basic population group, there emerges a service population group employed in the following;

Municipal administrative and public institutions.

Cultural and educational institutions (schools, libraries, clubs, etc.).

Medical establishments (polyclinics, hospitals, etc.).

A number of food and light industries servicing the needs of the town.

Shopping centres and public service establishments.

Local transport and public utilities facilities.

Вариант 33.

TOWN CENTRE

Occupying an important place in the plan structure of a town is the system of public centres differing in their func­tion and location. The town centre as a place of the greatest con­centration of public life is of particular importance. As a rule town centres are built up with administrative and commercial buildings, public and cultural establishments, large shops, and places of entertainment in a unified architectural ensemble do­minating the urban pattern and in harmony with its general plan structure.

From the viewpoint of convenience for the public, it is advisable to set the town centre in the geometric centre of the town. But it may often be necessary to locate the town centre away from the geometric centre due to the particular conditions of the territory, location of highways and the existing building pattern. Thus, in large seaport towns the centres are often located near the water. An example of a regular plan structure is the new shopping centre in the city of Abidjan (Ivory Coast). The centre provides for a flexible composition ensuring steady development using modern engineering infrastructure and the construction of high-rise buildings with 11-14 or more stories. The western sites are used for administrative buildings, the eastern — for the shopping; located to the north of the centre are cultural and sports facilities. The separation of automotive and pedestrian traffic is well planned. The central axis highway connects the centre to all the districts of the city. The population of the central district located on the Banko plateau is more than 50,000.

Вариант 34.

MODERN CITY PLANNING

Modern city planning is characterized by the rapid urban growth and the tendency for several towns to be knitted together into large agglomerations with a corresponding increase in popu­lation and territory. This results in the best farm lands being used by the expanding urban territory and in the despoliation of the natural landscape and forests, the pollution of water areas and the atmosphere.

The continued growth of cities with their solid masses of ma­sonry structures and high building density results in insufficient insolation and greenery and hence a decline in the urban micro­climate.

Urban growth increases average travel time. and mobility of people, there is a sharp increase In the intensity of road haulage and the number of transportation facilities. On roads and streets, as is known, the number of vehicles increases several times faster -than the road network causing supersaturation by transportation of the street network and traffic congestion which is already to be observed in many large cities of the United States and other capitalist countries.

The main problem facing large modern cities is to make the most effective use of urban land without further encroachment on adjacent land.

 

 

Приложение.

Таблица 1- Список неправильных глаголов.

 

Infinitive	Past simple	Participle II	основные значения
Arise	Arose	Arisen	Возникать, подниматься
Be	Was, were	Been	Быть
Bear	Bore	Born	Носить, рождать, производить
Become	Became	Become	Становиться
Begin	Began	Begun	Начинать(ся)
Bend	Bent	Bent	Гнуть(ся)
Bind	Bound	Bound	Связывать
Blow	Blew	Blown	Дуть
Break	Broke	Broken	Ломать
Breed	Bred	Bred	Выводить, растить
Bring	Brought	Brought	Приносить
Build	Built	Built	Строить
Burn	Burnt	Burnt	Гореть, жечь
Burst	Burst	Burst	Разрываться
Buy	Bought	Bought	Покупать
Cast	Cast	Cast	Бросать, отливать
Catch	Caught	Caught	Ловить, схватывать
Choose	Chose	Chosen	Выбирать
Come	Came	Come	Приходить
Cost	Cost	Cost	Стоить
Cut	Cut	Cut	Резать
Deal	Dealt	Dealt	Иметь дело
Dig	Dug	Dug	Копать
Do	Did	Done	Делать
Draw	Drew	Drawn	Рисовать
Dream	Dreamt	Dreamt	Видеть сны, мечтать
Drink	Drank	Drunk	Пить
Drive	Drove	Driven	Везти, приводить в движение
Eat	Ate	Eaten	Есть
Fall	Fell	Fallen	Падать
Feed	Fed	Fed	Кормить(ся)
Feel	Felt	Felt	Чувствовать
Fight	Fought	Fought	Бороться, сражаться
Find	Found	Found	находить
Fly	Flew	Flown	летать
Forbid	Forbade	Forbidden	Запрещать
Forget	Forgot	Forgotten	Забывать
Forgive	Forgave	Forgiven	Прощать
Freeze	Froze	Frozen	Замерзать, замораживать
Get	Got	Got	Получать
Give	Gave	Given	Давать
Go	Went	Gone	Идти, ехать
Grind	Ground	Ground	Молоть, скрежетать, шлифовать
Grow	Grew	Grown	Расти, выращивать
Hang	Hung	Hung	Висеть, вешать
Have	Had	Had	Иметь
Hear	Heard	Heard	Слышать
Hide	Hid	Hidden	Прятаться
Hit	Hit	Hit	Ударять
Hold	Held	Held	держать
Hurt	Hurt	Hurt	Повредить, причинить боль
Keep	Kept	Kept	Держать, хранить
Know	Knew	Known	Знать
Lay	Laid	Laid	Класть, положить
Lead	Led	Led	Вести
Learn	Learnt	Learnt	Учить, учиться
Leave	Left	Left	Покидать, оставлять
Lend	Lent	Lent	Давать взаймы
Let	Let	Let	Позволять, пускать
Lie	Lay	Lain	Лежать
Light	Lit	Lighted	Освещать, зажигать
Lose	Lost	Lost	терять
Make	Made	Made	Делать, производить
Mean	Meant	Meant	Значить, иметь ввиду
Meet	Met	Met	Встречать
Mislead	Misled	Misled	Вводить в заблуждение
Overcome	Overcame	Overcome	Преодолевать
Override	Overrode	Overridden	Наехать, отвергать
Pay	Paid	Paid	Платить
Put	Put	Put	Класть
Read	Read	Read	Читать
Ring	Rang	Rung	Звонить
Rise	Rose	Risen	Подниматься, вставать
Run	Ran	Run	Бежать
Say	Said	Said	Сказать
See	Saw	Seen	Видеть
Seek	Sought	Sought	Искать
Sell	Sold	Sold	Продавать
Send	Sent	Sent	Посылать, отправлять
Set	Set	Set	Ставить, класть, размещать
Shake	Shook	Shaken	Трясти, встряхивать
Shed	Shed	Shed	Сбрасывать, избавляться
Shine	Shone	Shone	Светить, сверкать
Shoot	Shot	Shot	Стрелять
Show	Showed	Shown	Показывать
Shrink	Shrank	Shrunk	Сжиматься
Shut	Shut	Shut	Закрывать
Sit	Sat	Sat	Сидеть
Slide	Slid	Slid	Скользить
Smell	Smelt	Smelt	Пахнуть, нюхать
Sow	Sowed	Sown/sowed	Сеять
Speak	Spoke	Spoken	Говорить, разговаривать
Speed	Sped	Sped	Спешить, содействовать
Spell	Spelt	Spelt/spelled	Писать или произносить слова по буквам
Spend	Spent	Spent	Тратить, проводить время
Spill	Spilt	Spilt/spilled	Проливать, разливать
Spin	Spun	Spun	Прясть, плести
Spit	Spat	Spat	Плевать
Split	Split	Split	Раскалывать, расщеплять
Spoil	Spoilt	Spoilt/ spoiled	Баловать, портить
Spread	Spread	Spread	Распространять(ся)
Spring	Sprang	Sprung	Прыгать, вскакивать
Stand	Stood	Stood	Стоять, вставать
Steal	Stole	Stolen	Красть
Stick	Stuck	Stuck	Колоть, приклеивать
Sting	Stung	Stung	Жалить, уязвлять
Stink	Stank	Stunk	Вонять
Strike	Struck	Struck	Ударять
Swear	Swore	Sworn	Клясться, присягать
Sweep	Swept	Swept	Выметать
Swim	Swam	Swum	Плавать
Swing	Swung	Swung	Качать, колебать
Take	Took	Taken	Брать
Teach	Taught	Taught	Учить, обучать
Tear	Tore	Torn	Рвать
Tell	Told	Told	Сказать, рассказать
Think	Thought	Thought	Думать
Throw	Threw	Thrown	Бросать
Tread	Trod	Trodden	Ступать
Understand	Understood	Understood	Понимать
Wake	Woke	Woken/waked	Будить, просыпаться
Wear	Wore	Worn	Носить
Weave	Wove	Woven	Ткать
Weep	Wept	Wept	Плакать
Win	Won	Won	Побеждать, выигрывать
Wind	Wound	Wound	Виться, извиваться
Write	Wrote	Written	Писать
Foretell	Foretold	Foretold	Предсказывать
Overtake	Overtook	Overtaken	Догнать
Withdraw	Withdrew	Withdrawn	Брать назад