Exercise 1. Переведите На русский язык, обращая внимание На значения глаголов can, could, be able TO.

 

 

1. Mike can run very fast. 2. Kate cannot speak English. 3. Can your brother help me with mathematics? 4. Will you be able to do this work tomorrow? 5. Yesterday I could not see him because I was too busy. 6. Could you swim when you were 6 years old? 7. His sister can cook very well. 8. I think that he will not be able to solve this task. 9. Will we be able to go to New York next year? 10. Where can I buy bread here? 11. Could your grandmother dance when she was young? 12. Could you help me? 13. He cannot answer your question. 14. Nobody could help me. 15. Tomorrow I will be free and I will be able to help you. 16. He has been able to swim since childhood.

Exercise 2. Переведите на русский язык, обращая внимание на значения глаголов may, might, to be allowed to.

 

 

1. May I go to the post-office with Mike? 2. Don’t give the vase to the child: he may break it. 3. May we take notes with a pencil? 4. If you have done your homework you may go for a walk. 5. May I invite Nick to our house? 6. It stopped raining, and mother told us that we might go out. 7. She might come home at 10 p.m. yesterday. 8. I think that I will not be allowed to go to the country. 9. Were you allowed to go to the river when you were a child? 10. You will be allowed to go for a walk when you do your homework. 11. He is not allowed to swim in this river. 12. I thought that I might watch TV. 13. Doctor said that I would be allowed to swim in a couple of days. 14. May I come in? 15. You might be more attentive.

Exercise 3. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на значения глаголов must, have to, be to.

1. Her English is very poor, she must study very hard. 2. Her English is very good; she must be studying very hard. 3. Her English has considerably improved; she must have studied hard during her vacation. 4. She must have been studying English these five years. Her English is rather fluent. 5. He had to sit up late with his work. 6. Mother has to cook dinner after work. 7. She will have to do it once over again. 8. We’ll have to speak to him about it. 9. The plane was not to take off at night as the weather was too bad. 10. The plane was to have taken off at night, but the weather was too bad. 11. The order came that we were not to leave the village before dawn. 12. We were not to have left the village before dawn, but by the time the order came we were two miles away from it. 13. Why are you late? You were to have come an hour ago.

Exercise 4. К следующим предложениям образуйте вопросительные предложения 5 типов.

1. You can speak English fluently. 2. They must study the material thoroughly. 3. He is to bring these papers. 4. They will be allowed to come later. 5. You had to do this work in time.

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Контрольная работа.

Задание 1. Переведите текст письменно.

Задание 2. Выпишите 1 предложение в активном залоге, 1 предложение в пассивном залоге и 1 предложение с модальным глаголом. Составьте вопросительные предложения 5 типов к каждому.

Задание 3. Составьте словарь терминов, которые встретились в вашем тексте.

Вариант 1.

BUILDING MATERIALS

Materials that are used for structural purposes should meet several requirements. In most cases it is important that they should be hard, durable, fire-resistant an easily fastened together.

The most commonly used materials are steel, concrete, stone, wood and brick. They differ in hardness, durability and fire-resistance.

Wood is the most ancient structural material. It is light, cheap and easy to work. But wood has certain disadvantages: it burns and decays.

Stone belongs to one of the oldest building materials used by men. It is characteristic of many properties. They are mechanical strength, compactness, porosity, sound and heat insulation and fire- resistance.

Bricks were known many thousands of years ago. They are examples of artificial building materials.

Concrete is referred to as one of the most important building materials. Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, crushed stone and water.

Steel has come into general use with the development of industry. Its manufacture requires special equipment and skilled labour.

Plastics combine all the fine characteristics of a building material with good insulating properties. It is no wonder that the architects and engineers have turned to them to add beauty to modern homes and offices.

All building materials can be divided into three main groups:

1) Main building materials such as rocks and artificial stones, timber and metals.

2) Binding materials such as lime, gypsum and cement.

3) Secondary or auxiliary materials which are used for the interior parts of the buildings.

We use many building materials for bearing structures. Binding materials are used for making artificial stone and for joining different planes. For the interior finish of the building we use secondary materials.

Natural building materials are: stone, sand, lime and timber. Cement clay products and concrete are examples of artificial building materials.

 

Вариант 2.

TIMBER

Timber is the most ancient structural material. In comparison with steel timber is lighter, cheaper, easier to work and its mechanical properties are good. On the other hand, timber has certain disadvantages. First, it burns and is therefore unsuitable for fireproof buildings. Second, it decays.

At present an enormous amount of timber is employed for a vast number of purposes. In building timber is used too.

Timber is a name applied to the cut material derived from trees. Timber used for building purposes is divided into two groups: softwoods and hardwoods. Hardwoods are chiefly used for decorative purposes, as for panelling, veneering in furniture, and some of them are selected for structural use because of their high strength and durability, in modern construction timber is often used for window and door frames, flooring, fences and gates, wallplates, for temporary building and unpainted internal woodwork.

Timber cannot be used for either carpenters' or joiners' work immediately it has been felled because of the large amount of sap which it contains. Elimination of this moisture increases the strength, durability and resilience of timber.

STONE

Stone has been used as a structural material since the earliest days. Almost of all famous buildings of classic times, of the medieval and Renaissance periods and of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries were erected of stone masonry. In some places stone was used because of the scarcity of timber, bin in other places stone was preferred because of its durability.

The stones which are usually used for masonry work are as follows:

1) Granite is very hard, strong and durable. It is used particularly for basements base courses, columns and steps and for the entire facades. Its colour may be gray yellow pink or deep red.

2) Sandstone. Sandstone is composed of grains of sand or quarts cemented together. Sandstones form one of the most valuable materials. The durability of sandstones depends very largely upon the cementing material.

Thus, there are different kinds of sandstones. Many sandstones are exceptionally hard and are selected for steps, sills etc. The excellent state of preservation of many ancient buildings built of this stone is evidence of this. But city buildings constructed of sandstone often assume a drab appearance owing to the dark colour. It is an excellent material for concrete aggregate.

3) Marble is a crystalline stone chiefly used for decorative purposes

White and black marbles are used for ornamental decoration where the beauty of the marble is shown to its best advantage.

Вариант 3.

METALS AND CONCRETE

All metals are divided into ferrous metals and non-ferrous metals. Ferrous metals include iron, steel and its alloys. Non-ferrous metal are metals and alloys the main component of which is not iron but some other good element. Metals, in general, and especially ferrous metals are of good importance in variations. Metals possess the following properties:

1) All metals have specific metallic lustre.

2) They can be forged.

3) Metals can be pulled.

4) All metals except mercury, are hard substances.

5) They can be melted.

6) In general, metals are good conductors of electricity.

These characteristics are possessed by all metals but the metals themselves differ from one another. Steel and cast iron are referred to the group of ferrous metals. Cast iron is the cheapest of the ferrous metals. It is chiefly used in building for compressed members of construction, as the supporting members.

When an engineer designs a steelwork he must carefully consider that the steel frame and every part of it should safely carry all the loads imposed upon it. The steel framework must be carefully hidden in walls, floors and partitions. It is steel and metal that is employed as reinforcement in modern ferroconcrete structures. In the curriculum of the Institute there is a special course on metal structures.

Steel. There are different kinds of steel. Alloyed steel (or special steel) is corrosion-resistant steel. This kind of steel is widely used in building. Stainless steel is also corrosion-resistant steel. It is used for cutlery, furnace parts, chemical plant equipment, valves, ball-bearings, etc.

Non-ferrous metals. Non-ferrous metals have the following, characteristics: high electric and heat conductivity, high corrosion resistance, non-magnetic qualities, light weight.

Aluminum. This is the oldest and best known light metal. It is used in aircraft, automobile, chemical and some other industries.

Copper. Copper is the best conductor of electricity. There are different alloys with copper. An alloy of copper and tin is called bronze. This metal is often used for making various ornaments.

Вариант 4.

WATER AND WATER SUPPLY

Centralized water supply dates back to 2500 BC. Ancient Egypt had complex engineering structures for the purpose. Yet to this day the percentage of the population enjoying centralized water supply on the African continent and in Asia, too, is very low.

In our country, at the time of the Revolution of 1917, only one third of the towns had running water laid on, and, then, as a rule, only in the central part of the town. In the pre-war period of industrial development running water reached millions of flats all over the country. Water supply of the systems are practically all in the western and central parts of European Russia, were destroyed during the war and had to be built anew.

Fresh water shortage was first mentioned soon after the end of the Second World War. The first to feel the stint was Europe. The problem came to many as a complete surprise, something in the nature of an unexpected “catastrophe”. This catastrophe, however, should have been foreseen, for it follows logically from the development of human life on our planet and of Man’s industrial activity.

In the absence of centralized water supply, a man can do with about 25 litres of water a day for his various personal needs. But in the modern city water consumption per person is much higher. An average of 300 to 500 litres of water is spent daily on household and sanitary needs per one inhabitant of a modern city. You can see this vastly exceeds the necessary minimum of 25 litres. Why the discrepancy (difference)? Not because people leave their taps open. Because water is so abundant nobody thinks twice about taking a shower, or a bath, using the washing machine, washing the car, etc. The volume of water consumption is indicative not only of the efficiency of the water supply but also of the population’s living standards.

One need in water is growing. Simultaneously, the globe’s population is growing. In the past century the consumption of water by the world’s largest cities, such as Paris, London, Berlin and Moscow, has grown 80 to 100 times. During the famous heat wave of 1972 Moscow “drank” almost 5,000,000 cubic metres of water a day. This staggering figure seems to confirm the immediacy of the water dearth problem. In actual fact, however, the problem consists not so much in where to get pure water but in how to deliver it to where people need it.

 

Вариант 5.

EVOLUTION OF ROAD BUILDING

Following the Fall of the Roman Empire in 400 A.D. no country was interested in international roads and that aspect of road construction was completely forgot for a period of almost 1,500 years.

Various countries were trying to find workable methods of providing and maintaining adequate community and intercity roads. Travel between towns was by coach, the roads available for intercity travel were generally poor, and travel was difficult during many months of the year. The roads were so bad that very few people dared to travel over them. Then the roads were improved, and mail-coaches started running. This increased the number of travelers, but even so, the man who made a journey of 200 miles and back was regarded as a hero.

In the past the kind of roads that were built depended greatly upon the road-building materials available. The easiest highway to build in early days was a water route, or canal. We know of the famous waterway used by the peoples of the ancient Rus State leading from Csargrad.

In Russia where forest abounded and other materials were difficult to procure wood was widely used for road construction in such regions where the forests soils were soft and spongy. Many roads on sea shore are paved with crushed oyster shells. In North the glaciers left many deposits of sand and gravel which makes excellent road material when mixed with clay. The first of the improved mere modern type were roads surfaced with stone, many miles of which were built in Britain and throughout Europe.

The program of improved roads advanced especially after 1770 when Thomas Telford and John Mac Adam had introduced improved methods for roads constructed with a surfacing of broken stone. They did not originate that form of construction. It had been in use for at least a hundred years when they began to build such roads, for it had been found that limestone moistened and crushed into pieces make a good road.

Mac Adam and Telford applied sound engineering principles to the design of this broken stone surface and to provisions for drainage. They must be chiefly famous because of their contribution to highway administration including methods of construction and maintenance that were a great improvement.

Вариант 6.

ROADS

On laying out a new road certain general principles have to be kept in mind. Motive power is economized by easy gradients; at the same time it is not desirable to deviate much from the direct route between the fixed points (towns and villages) through which the road must pass since excavation works are expensive; these must be as small as possible. A careful survey of two or three trial lines should be made before the route is finally decided upon; this involves also an examination of the geological features of the district and of streams which have to be crossed by bridges. In fact, the formation of an extended line of road involves the construction of bridges, viaducts and other important works which require the greatest engineering skill.

It is important to be well acquainted with the nature of the country which is to be traversed whether flat or hill. It is equally important to consider the weather conditions.

To make tunnels, cuttings, embankments, foundations for bridges, constructing canals or roads it is most necessary to know the character of the rock met with, especially whether hard or soft and whether permeable or not to water. One must also know what rocks are obtainable and suitable for roads metal. Every kind of road serves its own purpose. According to their technical characteristics roads can be classified as follows:

Primitive roads. These are natural roads where no road construction work has been made. To these belong the natural rural roads and tracks. Only the lowest speeds are possible here as a rule. Such roads are only passable for a part of the year.

Seasonal roads are roads having a specially constructed carriageway, proper drainage must be made. In favourable seasons great speeds are possible here. These roads are not passable in certain parts of the year. There exist seasonal cart-roads, tractor roads and motor roads.

Permanent roads of local transport. These roads have a specially constructed stable carriage-way, adequate drainage facilities and adequate road surfacing securing traffic all the year round. With proper maintenance high speeds are possible on these roads.

 

 

Вариант 7.

CONCRETE

It is difficult to imagine modern structure without concrete. Concrete is the very building material which led to great structural innovations. The most important quality is its property to be formed into large and strong monolithic units. The basic materials for making concrete are cement, aggregate and water. Cement is the most essential material and the most important one for making concrete of high quality. Cement is made of limestone and clay. It is burnt at high temperature and ground up into powder. During the grinding a small percentage of raw gypsum is added otherwise it would set too quickly. Depending on the kind and composition of the raw materials different types of cement are obtained: Portland cement, blast furnace cement, rapid-hardening cement and many others.

Concrete is made by binding together particles of sand and gravel, stone or broken brick. The binding agent used is a paste of Portland cement and water, in suitable proportions. When water is added to the cement, hydration takes place. This causes the whole mixture to set and harden, forming a solid mass. Cement starts hardening one hour after the water has been added and the process of hardening lasts for about twenty-eight days. The process is called concrete curing. The strength of concrete under favourable conditions increases with age. The strength of concrete is very rapid in the early stages, but continues more slowly for an indefinite period amounting to years. The sand, gravel (or broken stone) are termed “aggregate”; sand is known as “fine aggregate”, and gravel as “coarse aggregate”. Concrete can be made on a building site and poured into position as a wet mix, or it may be used as the materials for making prefabricated units in a plant.

 

Вариант 8.

The characteristics of concrete depend upon the quality of the materials used, grading of the aggregates, proportioning and amount of water. The most important requirements for concrete are: it should be hard, strong, durable, fire-resistant and economical. To get the best of concrete the following considerations should be kept in mind (помнить):

1. The most suitable proportions of cement and aggregate are: 1 part cement, 2 parts sand and 4 parts of gravel.

2. The water used for mixing cements, limes and plasters must be reasonably clean. Pond, river and canal water often contain different impurities and should not be used without examination. Water fit for drinking can be assumed to be free from harmful ingredients. Excess of water is detrimental to the ultimate strength of the concrete.

3. The sand should be clean. Therefore, if impurities are present, the binding is affected.

Concrete can be divided into two classes: mass or plain concrete and reinforced concrete (ferro-concrete) where it is necessary to introduce steel. Plain or mass concrete can be used for almost all building purposes. Ferro-concrete is used in building bridges and arches, dams and dock-walls, for structures underwater, for foundations, columns and beams. The use of concrete and ferro-concrete is almost universal.

 

Вариант 9.

 

REINFORCED CONCRETE

Reinforced concrete is a combination of two of the strongest structural materials, concrete and steel.

This term is applied to a construction in which steel bars or heavy steel mesh are properly embedded in concrete. The steel is put in position and concrete is poured around and over it, and then tamped in place so that the steel is completely embedded. When the concrete hardens and sets, the resulting material gains great strength. This new structural concrete came into practical application at the turn of the 19^th century.

Steel has great tensional, compressive and elastic properties, but it is not durable being exposed to moisture, it loses its strength with age, or being subjected to high temperature. So, what is the effect of the addition of steel reinforcement to concrete?

Steel does not undergo shrinkage or drying but concrete does and therefore steel acts as a restraining medium in a reinforced concrete member. Shrinkage causes tensile stresses in the concrete, which are balanced by compressive stresses in the steel.

First there was a tendency among architects to consider reinforced concrete as a

method of construction suited only to heavy and massive structures. Much study and experience have led to vast improvements in the manufacture of this concrete. The potentialities of a substance which can be poured into any form or shape from delicate ornament to huge cantilevers and parabolic arches and which is monolithic throughout its mass appear to be in the hands of the creators of concrete buildings.

Indeed, steel constructions with reinforced concrete have become the most important building materials invented in centuries and they have given modern architecture its peculiar features.

 

Вариант 10.

CEMENT: MAN’S MIRACLE MIX

One of man's oldest building materials is finding its way into a lot of new places these days. Concrete, first discovered by the Romans, is now more widely used in construction than all other materials together.

The magic ingredient that makes concrete possible is cement, about which, according to one expert, more has been learnt in the past three decades than in the preceding 2000 years. Concrete is a synthetic stone, which can be formed while soft into practically any shape the builder wants. Portland cement mixed with water is the paste that binds sand, gravel, clinker into an artificial rock that becomes harder as the years pass. Portland cement does not come from a place of that name; it was called Portland because Joseph Aspdin, the English builder who invented the first dependable, scientifically made cement about 1824, thought it resembled the rock excavated on the Isle of Portland on the Dorset Coast.

What's so new about cement after all these years? Several things. One item is "squeezed" concrete, known technically as pre-stressed concrete. By giving concrete a big squeeze after it has hardened, builders can increase its elasticity ten times, so that it will bend under a heavy load without breaking. This is important in building bridges, viaducts, and floors of large buildings.

 

Вариант 11.

The simplest way to pre-stress concrete is to put steel wires or bars in the concrete when it is poured.

An unusual American use of reinforced concrete is the floating highway bridge across Lake Washington. The depth of the lake made piers too expensive, so engineers built the bridge on hollow concrete pontoons anchored in place by steel cables. It is the longest pontoon bridge structure on earth.

Until recently, the aim of engineers was to make concrete with as few bubbles as possible. Now they have come up with a new concrete that has millions of microscopic bubbles per cubic foot. It is made by adding an agent, which foams to form the bubbles when the concrete is mixed. This concrete doesn't crack when freezing. The first "air bubble" roads were built many years ago. They have stood up under winter freezes so well that today this concrete is used for new road construction.

Another discovery is "soil cement". Several years ago road builders lacking funds found that they could mix cement with soil on the site of the road, wet it and compact it, then cover it with bitumen. The first road they built is still carrying traffic. There are miles of soil-cement secondary roads and streets today. Construction goes so fast that with modern equipment a road builder can complete a mile of soil cement road in one day.

Scientists are working on research into the behaviour of cement and concrete under all kinds of conditions. Collaborating with engineers they are developing new ways of using concrete. Cement is changing the face of the earth.

 

 

Вариант 12.

 

BUILT-IN FURNITURE

Built-in components form a permanent, complete and integral part of the internal structure of a building. Therefore, they are considered at the planning stage so as to be directly related in size and shape to the design and purpose of each room. They remain fixed units and are left behind as part of the structure if the ownership of the dwelling changes. Movable furniture, as we know, is usually taken away.

Built-in furniture, as a rule, always saves space and materials. It is considered to be a valuable asset in small dwellings. Thus, a built-in wardrobe, planned to fit in where convenient, requires less space than a movable one of similar capacity. This does not affect its efficiency. It has the advantage of being fitted into an awkward corner, utilizing space, which might otherwise have been wasted.

Built-in furniture, especially the storage type, has always been preferred by many. But the tendency towards smaller dwellings has resulted in economy of space being achieved wherever possible. This has had an important effect on the development and use of built-in furniture.

Open planning, which has now been generally adopted, enables one room to serve the purposes of several. The most practical method of defining the various areas is built-in units. Living and dining areas, for instance, can be separated by a low cupboard arrangement, designed as a bookcase and writing desk on one side, and sideboard on the other.

Built-in furniture can also be used to take the place of dividing walls, such as built-in wardrobes backing on to each other and separating two bedrooms.

 

Вариант 13.

 

PANEL HEATING (part 1)

(1) Heating and ventilation are two branches of engineering which are very closely connected and concerned with providing a required atmospheric environment, former with respect to heat supply to produce a desired temperature for maintaining comfort and health, the latter with supply and removal of air often with emphasis on contamination of the air.

(2) Heating prevents the too rapid loss of heat from the body. By heating the ambient air of walls, ceiling or floor the rate of heat loss from the body can be controlled. The determination of the capacity or size of the various components of the heating system is based on the fundamental concept that heat supplied to a space equals heat lost from the space. The most widely used system of heating is the central heating, where the fuel is burned in one place – the basement or a specially designed room and from which steam, hot water or warm air is distributed to adjacent and remote spaces to be heated.

(3) There two most common systems of heating – hot water and steam. Both systems are widely used nowadays. A hot-water system consists of the boilers and a system of pipes connected to radiators. They are suitably located in rooms to be heated. The pipes, usually of steel and copper, feed hot water to radiators or convectors which give up their heat to the room. The cooled water is returned to the boiler for reheating.

 

Вариант14.

PANEL HEATING (part 2)

(4) As for steam systems, steam is generated usually in the boiler and then led to the radiators through or by means of steel or copper pipes. The steam gives up its heat to the radiators and the radiator to the room and the cooling of the steam condenses it to water. The condensate is returned to the boiler either by gravity or by a pump. The air valve on each radiator is necessary for air to escape. Otherwise it would prevent steam from entering the radiator.

(5) Recent efforts to conceal heating equipment have resulted in an arrangement where hot water or steam is circulated through distribution units embedded in the building construction. Panel heating is a method of introducing heat to rooms in which the emitting surfaces are completely concealed in the floor, walls, or ceiling. The heat is disseminated from such panels partly by radiation and partly by convection, the relative amounts depending on the panel location. Ceiling panels release the largest proportion of heat by radiation and floor panels - the smallest. The proportion of heat disseminated by radiation and convection is also dependent on panel-surface temperatures. The basic advantage of a panel heating system is that of comfort.

(6) Application of certain panels is frequently restricted by structural details. Other factors to be considered are type of occupancy, furniture or equipment location, large glass areas, heat-storing capacity of building construction, room height, climate and first cost.

As for fuels used for heating buildings they include coal, oil, manufactured and natural gases and wood. There are two other sources: electricity and steam. Nowadays gas fuel is being used on an increasing level.

 

 

Вариант 15.