Разработано ст. преподавателем кафедры ЭГН

Учебно-методическое пособие

По английскому языку

для студентов второго курса

Заочной формы обучения.

Разработано ст. преподавателем кафедры ЭГН

О.А. Силивановой

Сарапул, 2016

 

 

Целью преподавания дисциплины «Иностранный язык» является достижение уровня коммуникативной компетенции, минимально достаточного для решения коммуникативных задач на иностранном языке в социально-бытовой, деловой и профессионально-ориентированной сферах общения.

Задачи дисциплины:

- формирование лексико-грамматических навыков и развитие умений во всех видах речевой деятельности;

- формированиеспособности к социальному взаимодействию и сотрудничеству;

- формирование позитивного отношения к культуре страны изучаемого языка;

- развитие коммуникативных навыков и умений различных видов чтения, умений письменной речи для реферирования и аннотирования профессионально-ориентированных и технических текстов и умений, необходимых для ведения деловой корреспонденции.

В результате изучения дисциплины студент должен

знать:

- необходимое количество(200) терминов;

- основные факты, реалии, имена, достопримечательности англоязычных стран;

- достижения, открытия, события из области истории, культуры, политики, социальной жизни англоязычных стран;

- основные фонетические, лексико-грамматические, стилистические особенности изучаемого языка;

- основные различия письменной и устной речи

уметь:

- свободно пользоваться письменными источниками;

- свободн пользоваться англо-русским словарём;

- свободно переводить несложные юридические тексты и материалы массмедиа.

- выявлять сходство и различия в системах родного и иностранного языка;

- идентифицировать языковые региональные различия в изучаемом языке

владеть:

- межкультурной коммуникативной компетенцией в разных видах
речевой деятельности;

- различными коммуникативными стратегиями;

- разными приемами запоминания и структурирования усваиваемого
материала;

- Интернет-технологиями для выбора оптимального режима
получения информации;

- презентационными технологиями для предъявления информации.

2. Место дисциплины в структуре ООП:

Дисциплина относится к циклу общепрофессиональных
дисциплин Федерального компонента государственного образовательного
стандарта высшего профессионального образования.

Дисциплина «Иностранный язык» способствует более продуктивному
изучению других дисциплин как общеобразовательных, так и
профессиональных.

После успешного завершения обучения дисциплины «Иностранный язык» студент имеет возможность изучить дисциплины профессионального блока за счет привлечения зарубежных источников. Это обеспечивает практическую направленность в системе обучения и соответствующий уровень использования английского языка в будущей профессиональной деятельности.

Таким образом, английский язык становится рабочим инструментом, позволяющим постоянно совершенствовать свои знания, пользуясь международным языком, изучая современную литературу по соответствующей специальности. Наличие высокой компетенции дает возможность вести плодотворную деятельность по изучению и творческому осмыслению зарубежного опыта в профилирующих и смежных областях науки и техники, а также в сфере делового профессионального общения.

 

THE NOUN. ИМЯ СУЩЕСТВИТЕЛЬНОЕ.

Наречия.

The adverb.

 

I. already, yet, just, often, seldom, hard, always, ever, never, well

II. –ly: happy – happily

true - truly

hardly, nearly, highly, quickly

III. since then, at last, at least, from time to time

 

THE ADJECTIVE.

ИМЯ ПРИЛАГАТЕЛЬНОЕ.

Основные суффиксы прилагательных

 

От глаголов:

-able reliable - надежный

-ible sensible - чувствительный

-ant important - важный

-ent different - различный

-ive active - активный

-ed organized - организованный

от существительных:

-al industrial - промышленный

-ful useful - полезный

-en wooden - деревянный

-ic economic - экономический

-ous mountainous - горный

-y lucky - удачный

-ly daily - ежедневный

-less useless - бесполезный

The verb. Глагол.

Основные суффиксы глаголов:

-ize utilize - использовать

-ate calculate - считать

--en weaken - ослаблять

-fy specify - определять

Строевые слова – признаки

Имени существительного	Глагола
Артикль A name – имя An aim – цель The machine - машина	Прединфинитивная частица To name – называть To aim – нацеливаться To machine - обрабатывать механически
Предлог In turn – по очереди Without result - без результата	Модальный или вспомогательный глагол You must turn to the left.-Вам надо повернуть налево. Their efforts will result in success.- Их усилия приведут к успеху.
Местоимение (притяжательное, вопросительное, неопределенное, отрицательное) My work – моя работа His studies – его занятие Whose planes are better?-Чьи планы лучше? No vacant seats are left.- (Никаких) свободных мест нет.	Местоимение (личное, вопросительное, относительное) I work.- Я работаю. He studies. – Он занимается. Who plans the research?- Кто планирует это научное исследование? The car which seats 5 persons.- Машина, которая вмещает (рассчитана на) 5 человек.

 

Формы глаголов.

	INFINITIVE	V^1ф	V^2ф	(Вспом. Гл.) V^3^ф	(Вспом. Гл.) Ving
Правильные	To produce	Produce(s)	Produced	Produced	producing
неправильные	To buy	Buy(s)	Bought	Bought	buying

 

Группы глаголов:

А) смысловые – глаголы, выражающие действие, состояние, процесс, которые всегда переводятся.

Б) вспомогательные – не несут никакой смысловой информации, не переводятся. Служат для образования сложных глагольных форм, используются при образовании вопросительных и отрицательных предложений. (to be, to have, to do, will, would)

В ) глаголы-связки – не выражают действия, а служат для связки подлежащего со смысловой частью сказуемого. (являться, быть, становиться.)

Г) модальные глаголы – выражают отношение к действию (нужно, можно, следует, должно быть сделано и т.д.)и поэтому используются только в сочетании со смысловым глаголом, всегда переводятся. (can, may, must, to have to, to be to, should, ought to, shall, will, would, need, dare)

Залог:

Активный – подлежащее выполняет действие.

Пассивный – действие выполняется над подлежащим.

 

TO BE

 

	Present Simple	Past Simple	Future Simple	Participle II (V3ф)
I	Am	was	will be	been
He, she, it	Is
You, we, they	Are	were

 

А) смысловой, когда за глаголом следует существительное с предлогом (находиться, быть) Everything is in constant motion. – Все находится в постоянном движении.

 

Б) вспомогательный – не переводится, используется для образования времен группы Continuous и времен в Passive Voice.

I am reading a book now. – Сейчас я читаю книгу.

I am being read a book now. – Сейчас мне читают книгу.

В) модальный, когда после него следует инфинитив с частицей to. (должен)

I am to read this book. – Я должен прочитать эту книгу.

Г) глагол-связка, когда за ним следует существительное, прилагательное, герундий, инфинитив или числительное. (- это, является).

Mathematics is a science. - Математика – это наука.

There is / There are – Есть, существует, существуют.

There are books on the table. – На столе лежат книги.

There is a pen and a pencil on the table. – На столе лежит ручка и карандаш.

There are different types of organizations. – Существуют различные типы организаций.

TO HAVE

	Present Simple	Past Simple	Future Simple	Participle II (V3ф)
I	Have	had	will have	had
He, she, it	Has
You, we, they	Have

 

А) смысловой – I have this book. – У меня есть эта книга.

Б) вспомогательный -не переводится, используется для образования времен группы Perfect. I have done all work. – Я сделал всю работу.

В) модальный, когда после него следует инфинитив с частицей to. (должен, приходится) I

 

Задание. Заполните пропуски соответствующей личной формой глагола to have.

 

1. I …many books. 2. Yesterday I … little time. 3. She … many friends. 4. They …a nice cat. 5. …you got a PT lesson today? 6. On Monday we … five lessons. 7. If you are tired, let’s …. a rest. 8. He … got a new car. 9. She … got a nice coat last autumn. 10. … you … this book tomorrow? 11. She … little money.

TO DO

	Present Simple	Past Simple	Future Simple	Participle II (V3ф)
I	Do	did	will do	done
He, she, it	Does
You, we, they	Do

 

А) смысловой – I do my homework every day. – Я делаю домашнее задание каждый день

Б) вспомогательный -не переводится, используется для образования вопросительных и отрицательных предложений в Present/Past Simple Active Voice. I don’t like this film. – Мне не нравится этот фильм.

Задание. Употребите верную форму: do, does, don't, doesn’t.

1. Where … Sam live? 2. I’m sorry, I … know his telephone number. 3. …you like music? – Yes, I …. 4. … your mother work? - No, she …. She is a housewife. 5. … your brother speak English? - Oh, yes, he …. 6. Why … their parents want to move to another city?

ACTIVE VOICE.

 

	SIMPLE	CONTINUOUS	PERFECT	PERFECT CONTINUOUS
PRESENT	V^1^Ф(s); DO / DOES…V^1^ф	AM / IS / ARE+ V –ing	HAVE / HAS + V^3^Ф(-ed)	HAVE / HAS BEEN+V-ing
PAST	V^2^Ф(-ed); DID …V^1^ф	WAS / WERE + V –ing	HAD + V^3^Ф(-ed)	HAD BEEN + V –ing
FUTURE	WILL + V^1^Ф	WILL BE +V-ing	WILL HAVE + V^3^Ф(-ed)	WILL HAVE BEEN + V –ing
FUTURE in the PAST	WOULD +V^1^Ф	WOULD BE + V –ing	WOULD HAVE + V^3^Ф	WOULD HAVE BEEN + V-ing
INFINITIVE	TO + V^1^Ф	TO BE + V –ing	TO HAVE + V^3^Ф (-ed)	TO HAVE BEEN + V-ing
СЛУЧАИ УПОТРЕБЛЕНИЯ	КОГДА?: yesterday, last week, a year ago; tomorrow, next week; always, often, never, every day	At 5 o`clock; from 4 to 5 p.m.; for 2 hours; today; this week; now, still.	By 5 o`clock; just, already, yet, since, this week; when she came; for	Just, already, yet; by that time + for two hours; since 1990; For an hour + when she came

 

 

TENSES. - времена

Настоящие времена.

PRESENT SIMPLE(простое настоящее время)	PRESENT CONTINUOUS(Progressive) (настоящее продолженное время)	PRESENT PERFECT(настоящее совершенное время)	PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS(Progressive) (настоящее совершенное продолженное время)
V^1^ф(-s); do/ does … V^1^ф	Am/is/are + V-ing	Have/has + V^3^Ф	Have/has been +V-ing
1.выражает привычные, обычные действия (всегда, часто, периодично) с наречиями и словосочетаниями:often, usually, sometimes, never, always, occasionally, seldom, every day(morning, week, year),on Monday, twice a year.   2. для выражения общеизвестных истин. e.g. Magnet attracts iron.   3.в придаточных предложениях времени и в условных после союзов: when, till, until, before, after, as soon as, if, unless, provided.(когда?, при каком условии?) вместо future indefinite используется present simple. e.g. If the weather is fine we’ll go for a walk. .	1.для выражения текущего действия, происходящего в данный момент(сейчас). e.g.It`s raining. I`m not wearing a coat because it isn`t cold. 2..для выражения отдельных намеченных на ближайшее будущее время действий (планы). e.g. We are leaving to Moscow tomorrow. 4. следующие глаголы не используются в форме continuous: Be – быть; Have - иметь like - нравиться; love - любить hate - ненавидеть want - хотеть; need - нуждаться know - знать mean - значить understand - понимать believe - верить remember - помнить think - думать see - видеть; hear - слышать feel – чувствовать; smell – пахнуть taste – иметь вкус	1. Обозначает совершенное к настоящему моменту действие. e.g. I`ve lost my way. They have done all work. 2. Используется с just, yet, already, of late, since, lately, recently, this week, often, seldom, never, ever. e.g. He has just returned from a business trip. We have already bought a car.	1.используется для выражения действия, которое началось в прошлом и все еще продолжается. e.g. I've been waiting for you for an hour.   2. используется с for (for two hours/ a week/ three month/ten years/ a long time) и since (since 1990/ nine o`clock / she came here, etc.) e.g. I've been writing letters since breakfast.

 

THE FUTURE TE

Будущие времена

FUTURE SIMPLE	FUTURE CONTINUOUS	FUTURE PERFECT	FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS
will + V ^1^ф	will be + V-ing	will have + V^3^ф	will have been + V-ing
1. Используется для выражения действия, которое будет происходить в будущем с выражением времени: tomorrow, next week, in a month, in 2014. e.g. We will go to the cinema tomorrow. 2. В вопросительных предложениях When? о будущих действиях. e.g. When will you take part at the conference?	1. Для выражения действия, которое будет длиться на протяжении какого-то периода времени в будущем. e.g. When I reach London it will probably be raining. Tomorrow from 6 to 8 p.m. we`ll be playing cards. 2. Для выражения действия, которое будет происходить в определенный момент времени в будущем. e.g. At 5 o`clock tomorrow I`ll be reading at the library.	1. Указывает на действие, совершенное к какому-либо моменту времени в будущем. e.g. By 2014 I shall have taken my degree.	1. Указывает на действие, которое начнется до определенного момента времени в будущем и будет продолжаться до этого момента в течении какого-то периода времени. e.g. We shall have been working at this problem for a month when you visit us a second time.
FUTURE SIMPLE in the PAST would + V ^1^ф (если в главном предложении сказуемое в прошедшем времени, то в придаточном для выражения будущего действия используется Future in the past)	FUTURE CONTINUOUS in the PAST would be + V –ing	FUTURE PERFECT in the PAST would have + V ^3^ф	FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS in the PAST would have been + V-ing
Используется для выражения будущего действия с точки зрения прошлого. e.g. He said that the next day he would go to the library.	Используется для выражения действия, длящегося в определенный момент или период времени в будущем с точки зрения прошлого. e.g. I thought that we would be watching football the whole evening.	Используется для выражения действия, совершенного до определенного момента времени в будущем с точки зрения прошлого. e.g. I wondered whether they would have reached the place by noon.	Указывает на действие, которое будет продолжаться до определенного момента в будущем в течении какого-то периода времени с точки зрения прошлого. e.g. He said that they would have been walking for two hours before they reached the hotel.

ОБЗОРНЫЕ УПРАЖНЕНИЯ

Разделительный вопрос

Подлежащее	Сказуемое	Остальные члены предложения,	Вспомогательный глагол	not	Подлежащее (местоимение)
There   Your flat You He She He	are is work works worked has been working	books on the table, comfortable,   at a plant,   here for 2 years,	are is do does did has	not   not not not not not	there?   it? you? he? she? he?

PASSIVE VOICE

	SIMPLE	CONTINUOUS	PERFECT
PRESENT	AM / IS / ARE + V^3^Ф	AM /IS/ARE BEING+ V^3^Ф	HAVE/HAS BEEN + V^3^Ф
PAST	WAS / WERE + V^3^Ф	WAS/WERE BEING+ V^3Ф	HAD BEEN + V^3^Ф
FUTURE	WILL BE + V^3^Ф		WILL HAVE BEEN + V^3^Ф
FUTURE in the PAST	WOULD BE + V^3^Ф		WOULD HAVE BEEN + V^3^Ф
INFINITIVE	TO BE + V^3^Ф	TO BE BEING + V^3Ф	TO HAVE BEEN + V^3^Ф

 

 

Время	Пример	Перевод
Present Simple	New houses are built every year.	Новые дома строят каждый год.
Present Continuous	A new house is being built now.	Сейчас строят новый дом.
Present Perfect	The new house has been built already.	Новый дом уже построили.
Past Simple	This house was built a year ago.	Этот дом построили год назад.
Past Continuous	This house was being builtwhen I moved into this region.	Этот дом стоили, когда я переехал в этот район.
Past Perfect	This house had been built before I moved into this region.	Этот дом построили до того, как я переехал в этот район.
Future Simple	This house will be built next year.	Этот дом построят в следующем году.
Future Perfect	This house will have been built before 2014.	Этот дом построят до 2014 года.
Future in the past Simple	He said this house would be built next year.	Он сказал, что этот дом построят в следующем году.
Future in the past Perfect	He said this house would have been built before 2014.	Он сказал, что этот дом построят до 2014 года.

 

 

 

 

Exercise 1. Переведите из действительного залога в страдательный. Дайте два варианта в тех случаях, где это возможно.

 

1) Tom offered me a job.

2) Someone has shown Tom the new apartment.

3) The boss pays Tom $100 every week.

4) They asked me difficult questions at the exam.

5) Sasha is telling Tom a joke.

6) We often speak about her.

7) The doctor will operate on him in a week.

8) Everybody listened to the lecturer with great attention.

9) The boys will paint the roof of the house.

10) They are preparing a report now.

11) By the middle of autumn we had planted all the trees.

12) They have forgotten the story.

Exercise 2. Раскройте скобки, употребляя глаголы в Active или Passive Voice.

 

1. Nobody (to see) him yesterday.

2. The telegram (to receive) tomorrow.

3. He (to give) me this book next week.

4. A huge plant recently (to build) in this town.

5. They (to look) for the girl everywhere now.

6. A friend of his just (to show) me an interesting magazine.

7. Your dress (not to iron) yet.

8. This letter (to receive) after his departure.

9. By three o’clock everything (to prepare).

10. He (to give) my brother English lessons.

Exercise 3. Переведите тексты, выделяя сказуемые в страдательном залоге. Задайте вопросы 5 типов к одному из предложений в страдательном залоге.

 

Automation.

Automation is often referred to as a new subject and its various aspects have not yet all been given adequate attention. Thus, for example, its commercial aspects have been only recently appreciated. Many problems arising from the impact of automation on national and world economy have not even been dealt with. It is, therefore, of paramount importance that the general public should be informed both of its technological and social aspects.

There is hardly any aspect of human life that will not be affected by the changes that automation will bring about. Unfortunately, there is relatively little factual material available for analyzing the consequences of automation. Indeed, most economists are not yet fully aware of the problems that may arise in the process of automation. The effect of these developments on the trend of prices, capital investments and balance of payments have not yet been fully appreciated. These subjects should be adequately dealt with in the foreseeable future.

 

Modal Verbs.

Модальные глаголы.

Infinitive.

	Active Voice	Passive Voice
Simple	to V^1^ф	to be V^3^ф
Continuous	to be Ving	-
Perfect	to have V^3^ф	to have been V^3^ф
Perfect Continuous	to have been Ving	-

 

 

Simple Infinitive

 

	Present	Past	Future
can – мочь, уметь to be able to	can – могу, умею am/ is / are able to	could – мог, умел was / were able to	will be able to – смогу, сумею
may –мочь, иметь разрешение to be allowed to to be permitted to	may – могу, разрешают am/is/are allowed to am/is/are permitted to	might –мог, разрешили was/were allowed to was/were permitted to	will be allowed to will be permitted to - смогу, разрешат
must –должен (моральная необходимость; mustn't - нельзя) to have to to be obliged to	must –должен am/is/are obliged to	had to – должен был was /were obliged to	will have to –должен буду will be obliged to
to have to –должен, приходится (должен по обстоятельствам)	have / has to –должен, приходится	had to – должен был, пришлось	will have to – должен буду, придется
to be to – должен, договорились (должен по договоренности)	am/is/are to – должен	was/were to – должен был

 

He can swim.

He could swim at the age of 5.

He will be able to swim in a month.

 

Simple Infinitive to be; Cont. Inf.; Perfect Inf.; Perfect Cont. Infinitive.

 

	Simple to be, Continuous	Perfect, Perfect Continuous
Must – должно быть, наверняка	He must be at home. – Должно быть, он дома. He must be living in Moscow. – Должно быть, он живет в Москве.	He must have done all work. – Должно быть, он выполнил всю работу.
May/might – возможно, может быть	He may be at home. – Возможно, он дома. He may be living in Moscow. – Возможно, он живет в Москве.	He may have done all work. – Возможно, он сделал всю работу.
Can`t/ couldn't`t – не может быть, чтобы	He can`t be at home. –Не может быть, что он дома. He can`t be living in Moscow. –Не может быть, что он живет в Москве.	He can`t have done all work. – Не может быть, чтобы он сделал всю работу. He can't have failed to do all work.
Can…?/Could…?- Неужели…?	Can he be at home? – Неужели он дома? Can he be living in Moscow? – Неужели он живет в Москве?	Can he have done all work? –Неужели он сделал всю работу? Can he have failed to do all work?
To be to		С Perf. Inf. – запланированное действие не произошло They were to have met at the theatre. – Они так и не встретились в театре.

 

 

	Simple, Continuous Infinitive	Perfect, Perfect Continuous
Should	You should call on him. –Тебе следуетпозвонить ему. (должен, следует)	You should have called on him. – Тебе следовалопозвонить ему. (должен был, следовало)
Ought to	You ought to visit your parents. – тебе следует навестить родителей. (совет, напоминание)	You ought to have helped her. Her bags were too heavy.- Тебе следовало бы ей помочь. У нее были такие тяжелые сумки. (упрек, порицание)
Needn`t	You needn`t call on him. - Тебе не нужно звонить ему. (нет необходимости)	You needn`t have called on him. – Зря ты ему позвонил. (зря, напрасно, незачем было)

 

 

Образование отрицательных и вопросительных предложений с модальными глаголами.

 

Обстоят. подлежащее вспом.глаг. not ост. часть сказ. ост. члены предл.

He can not swim.

He can swim.

Can he swim?

How well can he swim?

Who can swim?

Can he swim or run?

He can swim, can not he?

Will he be able to lift this box?

Are they to meet at the station?

To have to

I have to

He has to get up at 6 a.m.

I had to

I don't have to get up at 6 a.m. Do you have to get up at 6 a.m?

He doesn't have to get up at 6 a.m. Does he have to get up at 6 a.m?

I didn’t have to get up at 6 a.m. Did he have to get up at 6 a.m?

 

Контрольная работа.

Задание 1. Переведите текст письменно.

Задание 2. Выпишите 1 предложение в активном залоге, 1 предложение в пассивном залоге и 1 предложение с модальным глаголом. Составьте вопросительные предложения 5 типов к каждому.

Задание 3. Составьте словарь терминов, которые встретились в вашем тексте.

Вариант 1.

BUILDING MATERIALS

Materials that are used for structural purposes should meet several requirements. In most cases it is important that they should be hard, durable, fire-resistant an easily fastened together.

The most commonly used materials are steel, concrete, stone, wood and brick. They differ in hardness, durability and fire-resistance.

Wood is the most ancient structural material. It is light, cheap and easy to work. But wood has certain disadvantages: it burns and decays.

Stone belongs to one of the oldest building materials used by men. It is characteristic of many properties. They are mechanical strength, compactness, porosity, sound and heat insulation and fire- resistance.

Bricks were known many thousands of years ago. They are examples of artificial building materials.

Concrete is referred to as one of the most important building materials. Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, crushed stone and water.

Steel has come into general use with the development of industry. Its manufacture requires special equipment and skilled labour.

Plastics combine all the fine characteristics of a building material with good insulating properties. It is no wonder that the architects and engineers have turned to them to add beauty to modern homes and offices.

All building materials can be divided into three main groups:

1) Main building materials such as rocks and artificial stones, timber and metals.

2) Binding materials such as lime, gypsum and cement.

3) Secondary or auxiliary materials which are used for the interior parts of the buildings.

We use many building materials for bearing structures. Binding materials are used for making artificial stone and for joining different planes. For the interior finish of the building we use secondary materials.

Natural building materials are: stone, sand, lime and timber. Cement clay products and concrete are examples of artificial building materials.

 

Вариант 2.

TIMBER

Timber is the most ancient structural material. In comparison with steel timber is lighter, cheaper, easier to work and its mechanical properties are good. On the other hand, timber has certain disadvantages. First, it burns and is therefore unsuitable for fireproof buildings. Second, it decays.

At present an enormous amount of timber is employed for a vast number of purposes. In building timber is used too.

Timber is a name applied to the cut material derived from trees. Timber used for building purposes is divided into two groups: softwoods and hardwoods. Hardwoods are chiefly used for decorative purposes, as for panelling, veneering in furniture, and some of them are selected for structural use because of their high strength and durability, in modern construction timber is often used for window and door frames, flooring, fences and gates, wallplates, for temporary building and unpainted internal woodwork.

Timber cannot be used for either carpenters' or joiners' work immediately it has been felled because of the large amount of sap which it contains. Elimination of this moisture increases the strength, durability and resilience of timber.

STONE

Stone has been used as a structural material since the earliest days. Almost of all famous buildings of classic times, of the medieval and Renaissance periods and of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries were erected of stone masonry. In some places stone was used because of the scarcity of timber, bin in other places stone was preferred because of its durability.

The stones which are usually used for masonry work are as follows:

1) Granite is very hard, strong and durable. It is used particularly for basements base courses, columns and steps and for the entire facades. Its colour may be gray yellow pink or deep red.

2) Sandstone. Sandstone is composed of grains of sand or quarts cemented together. Sandstones form one of the most valuable materials. The durability of sandstones depends very largely upon the cementing material.

Thus, there are different kinds of sandstones. Many sandstones are exceptionally hard and are selected for steps, sills etc. The excellent state of preservation of many ancient buildings built of this stone is evidence of this. But city buildings constructed of sandstone often assume a drab appearance owing to the dark colour. It is an excellent material for concrete aggregate.

3) Marble is a crystalline stone chiefly used for decorative purposes

White and black marbles are used for ornamental decoration where the beauty of the marble is shown to its best advantage.

Вариант 3.

METALS AND CONCRETE

All metals are divided into ferrous metals and non-ferrous metals. Ferrous metals include iron, steel and its alloys. Non-ferrous metal are metals and alloys the main component of which is not iron but some other good element. Metals, in general, and especially ferrous metals are of good importance in variations. Metals possess the following properties:

1) All metals have specific metallic lustre.

2) They can be forged.

3) Metals can be pulled.

4) All metals except mercury, are hard substances.

5) They can be melted.

6) In general, metals are good conductors of electricity.

These characteristics are possessed by all metals but the metals themselves differ from one another. Steel and cast iron are referred to the group of ferrous metals. Cast iron is the cheapest of the ferrous metals. It is chiefly used in building for compressed members of construction, as the supporting members.

When an engineer designs a steelwork he must carefully consider that the steel frame and every part of it should safely carry all the loads imposed upon it. The steel framework must be carefully hidden in walls, floors and partitions. It is steel and metal that is employed as reinforcement in modern ferroconcrete structures. In the curriculum of the Institute there is a special course on metal structures.

Steel. There are different kinds of steel. Alloyed steel (or special steel) is corrosion-resistant steel. This kind of steel is widely used in building. Stainless steel is also corrosion-resistant steel. It is used for cutlery, furnace parts, chemical plant equipment, valves, ball-bearings, etc.

Non-ferrous metals. Non-ferrous metals have the following, characteristics: high electric and heat conductivity, high corrosion resistance, non-magnetic qualities, light weight.

Aluminum. This is the oldest and best known light metal. It is used in aircraft, automobile, chemical and some other industries.

Copper. Copper is the best conductor of electricity. There are different alloys with copper. An alloy of copper and tin is called bronze. This metal is often used for making various ornaments.

Вариант 4.

WATER AND WATER SUPPLY

Centralized water supply dates back to 2500 BC. Ancient Egypt had complex engineering structures for the purpose. Yet to this day the percentage of the population enjoying centralized water supply on the African continent and in Asia, too, is very low.

In our country, at the time of the Revolution of 1917, only one third of the towns had running water laid on, and, then, as a rule, only in the central part of the town. In the pre-war period of industrial development running water reached millions of flats all over the country. Water supply of the systems are practically all in the western and central parts of European Russia, were destroyed during the war and had to be built anew.

Fresh water shortage was first mentioned soon after the end of the Second World War. The first to feel the stint was Europe. The problem came to many as a complete surprise, something in the nature of an unexpected “catastrophe”. This catastrophe, however, should have been foreseen, for it follows logically from the development of human life on our planet and of Man’s industrial activity.

In the absence of centralized water supply, a man can do with about 25 litres of water a day for his various personal needs. But in the modern city water consumption per person is much higher. An average of 300 to 500 litres of water is spent daily on household and sanitary needs per one inhabitant of a modern city. You can see this vastly exceeds the necessary minimum of 25 litres. Why the discrepancy (difference)? Not because people leave their taps open. Because water is so abundant nobody thinks twice about taking a shower, or a bath, using the washing machine, washing the car, etc. The volume of water consumption is indicative not only of the efficiency of the water supply but also of the population’s living standards.

One need in water is growing. Simultaneously, the globe’s population is growing. In the past century the consumption of water by the world’s largest cities, such as Paris, London, Berlin and Moscow, has grown 80 to 100 times. During the famous heat wave of 1972 Moscow “drank” almost 5,000,000 cubic metres of water a day. This staggering figure seems to confirm the immediacy of the water dearth problem. In actual fact, however, the problem consists not so much in where to get pure water but in how to deliver it to where people need it.

 

Вариант 5.

EVOLUTION OF ROAD BUILDING

Following the Fall of the Roman Empire in 400 A.D. no country was interested in international roads and that aspect of road construction was completely forgot for a period of almost 1,500 years.

Various countries were trying to find workable methods of providing and maintaining adequate community and intercity roads. Travel between towns was by coach, the roads available for intercity travel were generally poor, and travel was difficult during many months of the year. The roads were so bad that very few people dared to travel over them. Then the roads were improved, and mail-coaches started running. This increased the number of travelers, but even so, the man who made a journey of 200 miles and back was regarded as a hero.

In the past the kind of roads that were built depended greatly upon the road-building materials available. The easiest highway to build in early days was a water route, or canal. We know of the famous waterway used by the peoples of the ancient Rus State leading from Csargrad.

In Russia where forest abounded and other materials were difficult to procure wood was widely used for road construction in such regions where the forests soils were soft and spongy. Many roads on sea shore are paved with crushed oyster shells. In North the glaciers left many deposits of sand and gravel which makes excellent road material when mixed with clay. The first of the improved mere modern type were roads surfaced with stone, many miles of which were built in Britain and throughout Europe.

The program of improved roads advanced especially after 1770 when Thomas Telford and John Mac Adam had introduced improved methods for roads constructed with a surfacing of broken stone. They did not originate that form of construction. It had been in use for at least a hundred years when they began to build such roads, for it had been found that limestone moistened and crushed into pieces make a good road.

Mac Adam and Telford applied sound engineering principles to the design of this broken stone surface and to provisions for drainage. They must be chiefly famous because of their contribution to highway administration including methods of construction and maintenance that were a great improvement.

Вариант 6.

ROADS

On laying out a new road certain general principles have to be kept in mind. Motive power is economized by easy gradients; at the same time it is not desirable to deviate much from the direct route between the fixed points (towns and villages) through which the road must pass since excavation works are expensive; these must be as small as possible. A careful survey of two or three trial lines should be made before the route is finally decided upon; this involves also an examination of the geological features of the district and of streams which have to be crossed by bridges. In fact, the formation of an extended line of road involves the construction of bridges, viaducts and other important works which require the greatest engineering skill.

It is important to be well acquainted with the nature of the country which is to be traversed whether flat or hill. It is equally important to consider the weather conditions.

To make tunnels, cuttings, embankments, foundations for bridges, constructing canals or roads it is most necessary to know the character of the rock met with, especially whether hard or soft and whether permeable or not to water. One must also know what rocks are obtainable and suitable for roads metal. Every kind of road serves its own purpose. According to their technical characteristics roads can be classified as follows:

Primitive roads. These are natural roads where no road construction work has been made. To these belong the natural rural roads and tracks. Only the lowest speeds are possible here as a rule. Such roads are only passable for a part of the year.

Seasonal roads are roads having a specially constructed carriageway, proper drainage must be made. In favourable seasons great speeds are possible here. These roads are not passable in certain parts of the year. There exist seasonal cart-roads, tractor roads and motor roads.

Permanent roads of local transport. These roads have a specially constructed stable carriage-way, adequate drainage facilities and adequate road surfacing securing traffic all the year round. With proper maintenance high speeds are possible on these roads.

 

 

Вариант 7.

CONCRETE

It is difficult to imagine modern structure without concrete. Concrete is the very building material which led to great structural innovations. The most important quality is its property to be formed into large and strong monolithic units. The basic materials for making concrete are cement, aggregate and water. Cement is the most essential material and the most important one for making concrete of high quality. Cement is made of limestone and clay. It is burnt at high temperature and ground up into powder. During the grinding a small percentage of raw gypsum is added otherwise it would set too quickly. Depending on the kind and composition of the raw materials different types of cement are obtained: Portland cement, blast furnace cement, rapid-hardening cement and many others.

Concrete is made by binding together particles of sand and gravel, stone or broken brick. The binding agent used is a paste of Portland cement and water, in suitable proportions. When water is added to the cement, hydration takes place. This causes the whole mixture to set and harden, forming a solid mass. Cement starts hardening one hour after the water has been added and the process of hardening lasts for about twenty-eight days. The process is called concrete curing. The strength of concrete under favourable conditions increases with age. The strength of concrete is very rapid in the early stages, but continues more slowly for an indefinite period amounting to years. The sand, gravel (or broken stone) are termed “aggregate”; sand is known as “fine aggregate”, and gravel as “coarse aggregate”. Concrete can be made on a building site and poured into position as a wet mix, or it may be used as the materials for making prefabricated units in a plant.

 

Вариант 8.

The characteristics of concrete depend upon the quality of the materials used, grading of the aggregates, proportioning and amount of water. The most important requirements for concrete are: it should be hard, strong, durable, fire-resistant and economical. To get the best of concrete the following considerations should be kept in mind (помнить):

1. The most suitable proportions of cement and aggregate are: 1 part cement, 2 parts sand and 4 parts of gravel.

2. The water used for mixing cements, limes and plasters must be reasonably clean. Pond, river and canal water often contain different impurities and should not be used without examination. Water fit for drinking can be assumed to be free from harmful ingredients. Excess of water is detrimental to the ultimate strength of the concrete.

3. The sand should be clean. Therefore, if impurities are present, the binding is affected.

Concrete can be divided into two classes: mass or plain concrete and reinforced concrete (ferro-concrete) where it is necessary to introduce steel. Plain or mass concrete can be used for almost all building purposes. Ferro-concrete is used in building bridges and arches, dams and dock-walls, for structures underwater, for foundations, columns and beams. The use of concrete and ferro-concrete is almost universal.

 

Вариант 9.

 

REINFORCED CONCRETE

Reinforced concrete is a combination of two of the strongest structural materials, concrete and steel.

This term is applied to a construction in which steel bars or heavy steel mesh are properly embedded in concrete. The steel is put in position and concrete is poured around and over it, and then tamped in place so that the steel is completely embedded. When the concrete hardens and sets, the resulting material gains great strength. This new structural concrete came into practical application at the turn of the 19^th century.

Steel has great tensional, compressive and elastic properties, but it is not durable being exposed to moisture, it loses its strength with age, or being subjected to high temperature. So, what is the effect of the addition of steel reinforcement to concrete?

Steel does not undergo shrinkage or drying but concrete does and therefore steel acts as a restraining medium in a reinforced concrete member. Shrinkage causes tensile stresses in the concrete, which are balanced by compressive stresses in the steel.

First there was a tendency among architects to consider reinforced concrete as a

method of construction suited only to heavy and massive structures. Much study and experience have led to vast improvements in the manufacture of this concrete. The potentialities of a substance which can be poured into any form or shape from delicate ornament to huge cantilevers and parabolic arches and which is monolithic throughout its mass appear to be in the hands of the creators of concrete buildings.

Indeed, steel constructions with reinforced concrete have become the most important building materials invented in centuries and they have given modern architecture its peculiar features.

 

Вариант 10.

CEMENT: MAN’S MIRACLE MIX

One of man's oldest building materials is finding its way into a lot of new places these days. Concrete, first discovered by the Romans, is now more widely used in construction than all other materials together.

The magic ingredient that makes concrete possible is cement, about which, according to one expert, more has been learnt in the past three decades than in the preceding 2000 years. Concrete is a synthetic stone, which can be formed while soft into practically any shape the builder wants. Portland cement mixed with water is the paste that binds sand, gravel, clinker into an artificial rock that becomes harder as the years pass. Portland cement does not come from a place of that name; it was called Portland because Joseph Aspdin, the English builder who invented the first dependable, scientifically made cement about 1824, thought it resembled the rock excavated on the Isle of Portland on the Dorset Coast.

What's so new about cement after all these years? Several things. One item is "squeezed" concrete, known technically as pre-stressed concrete. By giving concrete a big squeeze after it has hardened, builders can increase its elasticity ten times, so that it will bend under a heavy load without breaking. This is important in building bridges, viaducts, and floors of large buildings.

 

Вариант 11.

The simplest way to pre-stress concrete is to put steel wires or bars in the concrete when it is poured.

An unusual American use of reinforced concrete is the floating highway bridge across Lake Washington. The depth of the lake made piers too expensive, so engineers built the bridge on hollow concrete pontoons anchored in place by steel cables. It is the longest pontoon bridge structure on earth.

Until recently, the aim of engineers was to make concrete with as few bubbles as possible. Now they have come up with a new concrete that has millions of microscopic bubbles per cubic foot. It is made by adding an agent, which foams to form the bubbles when the concrete is mixed. This concrete doesn't crack when freezing. The first "air bubble" roads were built many years ago. They have stood up under winter freezes so well that today this concrete is used for new road construction.

Another discovery is "soil cement". Several years ago road builders lacking funds found that they could mix cement with soil on the site of the road, wet it and compact it, then cover it with bitumen. The first road they built is still carrying traffic. There are miles of soil-cement secondary roads and streets today. Construction goes so fast that with modern equipment a road builder can complete a mile of soil cement road in one day.

Scientists are working on research into the behaviour of cement and concrete under all kinds of conditions. Collaborating with engineers they are developing new ways of using concrete. Cement is changing the face of the earth.

 

 

Вариант 12.

 

BUILT-IN FURNITURE

Built-in components form a permanent, complete and integral part of the internal structure of a building. Therefore, they are considered at the planning stage so as to be directly related in size and shape to the design and purpose of each room. They remain fixed units and are left behind as part of the structure if the ownership of the dwelling changes. Movable furniture, as we know, is usually taken away.

Built-in furniture, as a rule, always saves space and materials. It is considered to be a valuable asset in small dwellings. Thus, a built-in wardrobe, planned to fit in where convenient, requires less space than a movable one of similar capacity. This does not affect its efficiency. It has the advantage of being fitted into an awkward corner, utilizing space, which might otherwise have been wasted.