Summary of Uses of the Comma

1. Use commas to separate items in a series.

2. Use commas to set off expressions which interrupt the sentence.

(1) Appositives

(2) Words in direct address

(3) Parenthetical expressions

(4) The words “well, yes, no, why, oh” when used at the beginning of a sentence

(5) Items in dates and addresses

(6) Nonrestrictive clauses

(7) Nonrestrictive participial phrases

3. Use a comma before “and, but, or, nor, for, yet” when they join main clauses unless the clauses are very short.

4. Use a comma after an introductory adverb clause, an introductory participial phrase, or a succession of introductory prepositional phrases.

5. Use a comma after the salutation of a friendly letter and after the closing of any letter.

1. Items in a Series

Use commas to separate items in a series.

He was formerly on the staff of the embassies in Moscow, Berlin, Vienna, and Madrid.

We had a refreshing, exciting, entertaining experience.

There were toys for the children, tools for Father, and books for Mother.

(1) Publishers disagree about the use of a comma before the “and” joining the last two items in a series. Usually writers follow the practice preferred by their publishers. There are some constructions in which the inclusion or omission of this comma affects the meaning of the sentence.

American folk songs may be classified in the following categories: marching songs, work songs, ballads, old hymns, and spirituals, [five categories].

American folk songs may be classified in the following categories: marching songs, work songs, ballads, old hymns and spirituals, [four categories].

Words customarily used in pairs are set off as one item in a series; bag and baggage, pen and ink, hat and coat, pork and beans, bread and butter, etc.

For lunch she served a fruit cup, macaroni and cheese, salad, ice cream and cake, and coffee.

(2) If all items in a series are joined by “or”, do not use commas. The weather man predicted rain or sleet or snow.

(3) Do not use a comma before the final adjective in a series if the adjective is thought of as part of the noun.

It was a cold, raw, dark November day. She is a pretty, charming, talented young woman.

If one of the words in a series modifies another word in the series, do not separate them by a comma.

She wore a long, bright blue gown.

(4) Short main clauses in a series may be separated by commas.

We worked, we played, we ate, and we gained weight.

2.Interrupters

Use commas to set off expressions which interrupt the sentence. To set off an expression takes two commas unless the expression comes first or last in the sentence.

(1) Appositives with their modifiers are set off by commas. An appositive is a word – with or without modifiers – that follows a noun or pronoun and identifies or explains it.

A syndicated column by Bernard Silverman, the noted author, will appear in the Times-News, a local paper.

When an appositive is so closely related to the word it modifies that it appears to be part of that word, no comma is necessary. An appositive of this kind is called a restrictive appositive. Usually it is one word.

His cousin Arthur

The novel Windswept

Your friend Jean

William the Conqueror

The conjunction and

(2) Words used in direct address are set off by commas.

I don’t know, Alice, where your brother is.

Sam, please come here.

Your grades are disappointing, my boy.

(3) Parenthetical expressions are set off by commas. The following expressions are commonly used parenthetically: “I believe, I am sure, on the contrary, on the other hand, after all, incidentally, of course, in my opinion, for example, to tell the truth”, etc.

My father will, I am sure, let me have the car tonight.

The weight of the car, of course, determines the price of the license.

(4) Certain words when used at the beginning of a sentence or remark are followed by a comma. These words are “well, yes, no, why, oh”.

Yes, you were elected.

Oh, I wouldn’t be too sure about that.

Why, the entire argument is false!

(5) In dates and addresses every item after the first one is enclosed by commas.

Our sentimental idea was to hold a class reunion on June 18, 1966, at the old high school.

Address me at 222 Twin Oaks Road, Akron 3, Ohio, after the first of March.

Their son was born on Monday, May 1, 1949, in Baltimore, Maryland.

When only the month and day are given, no punctuation is necessary: It was on May 10 that we began work.

When the items are joined by a preposition, do not use commas.

He lived at 33 J Alain Street in Passaic, New Jersey.

(b) A nonrestrictive clause is set off by commas. A nonrestrictive clause is a subordinate clause which is not necessary to the meaning of the sentence, but merely adds an idea to the sentence.

NONRESTRICTIVE Joan Thomas, who was offered scholarships to three colleges, will go to Ml. Holyoke in September.

The basic meaning of this sentence is Joan Thomas will go to Mr.Holyoke in September.

The subordinate clause does not affect this basic meaning, it merely adds an idea to the sentence. It is a nonrestrictive clause because it does not restrict in any way the word it modifies – Joan Thomas. Clauses which modify proper nouns are nearly always nonrestrictive. The opposite of a nonrestrictive clause is a restrictive clause.

 

RESTRICTIVE Joan Thomas is the only senior who won scholarships to three colleges.

Here the subordinate clause is necessary to the sentence, for without it the sentence would not say the same thing: Joan Thomas is the only senior. The subordinate clause restricts the meaning of senior – senior who won scholarships to three colleges.

(7) A nonrestrictive participial phrase is set off by commas. A participial phrase is a group of related words containing a participle. Like a nonrestrictive clause, a nonrestrictive participial phrase is set off by commas because it is not necessary to the meaning of the sentence.

NONRESTRICTIVE My little brother, playing in the street, was struck by a car.

RESTRICTIVE A child playing in the street may be struck by a car.

NONRESTRICTIVE Mrs. Hampton, frightened by the thunder, locked herself in a closet.

RESTRICTIVE People frightened by thunder often try to hide.

NONRESTRICTIVE The crowd broke up suddenly, dispersing rapidly in all directions.

RESTRICTIVE I watched the crowd dispersing rapidly in all directions.

 

3. Main Clauses

Use a comma before and, but, or, nor, for, yet when they join main clauses unless the clauses are very short.

Saturday’s Council meeting was unusually productive, for no one raised any objections.

The first two acts were slow moving, but the third act was full of action and suspense.

You go ahead and I'II follow, [main clauses too short to require punctuation]

When the conjunction joins two verbs, not two main clauses, a comma is not necessary.

I gave some good advice to Gerald and got some from him in return.

(The conjunction joins the verbs “gave” and “got”.)

I gave some good advice to Gerald, and he gave me some in return.

(The conjunction joins two main clauses.)

Many writers use the comma before these conjunctions – as they use the comma before and between the last two items in a series – only when necessary to keep the meaning clear.

 

NOT CLEAR: I grabbed the dog and the woodchuck limped away.

CLEAR: I grabbed the Jog, and the woodchuck limped away.

As you can see from the preceding examples, a reader may easily be confused if the comma is omitted.

This is especially true of the comma before the conjunction “or”, which should always be preceded by a comma when it means.

 

4. Introductory Clauses and Phrases

A comma should be used after an introductory adverb clause, an introductory participial phrase, or a succession of introductory prepositional phrases.

 

(1) Adverb Clause

While Mario put the costume on, his accompanist played Deep Purple. An adverbial clause at the end of a sentence is not usually set off.

His accompanist played “Deep Purple” while Mario put the costume on.

 

(2) Participal Phrases

Watching the game from his elm-tree vantage point, Elmer forgot to hold on.

A verbal noun ending in – ing and used as the subject of the sentence should not be confused with an introductory participial phrase.

Washing and polishing the car is fun. (verbal nouns as subject)

Washing and polishing the car, I developed some sore muscles. (participial phrase)

 

(3) Succession of Prepositional Phrases

At the edge of the deep woods near Lakeville in Cumberland County, he built a small log cabin.

A single introductory prepositional phrase need not be followed by a comma unless it is parenthetical (by the way, on the contrary, etc) or necessary to prevent confusion.

With the weak, competition is unpopular. In the morning I am never wide awake.

 

Dash

1. Use a dash to connect an introductory list to the rest of the sentence.

2. Use a dash to set interruptions apart from the rest of the sentence.

3. Use a dash to set apart appositives and modifiers if they are particularly strong.

4. Use a dash for a concluding list or summary.

 

Hypen

1. Use a hyphen to show related parts of word phrases: soon-forgotten.

2. Use a hyphen to connect two word numbers: twenty-two.

3. Use a hyphen between the prefix and word root to avoid confusion: re-create/recreate, re-sign/resign.

4. Try to avoid using a hyphen at the end of a line in formal writing as it frequently detracts from the flow of the sentence. However, if you must use one, place the hyphen only between syllables of the word. Never hyphenate a one syllable word.

Quotation marks

1. Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotations, unless the direct quote is more than four lines long. In the case of a block quote set the quote apart from the text without quote marks.

2. Single quote marks are used to indicate a quote within a quote. Even in block quotes, the single quote mark is used to indicate a quote within a quote.

3. Quotation marks are used to enclose: titles of poems titles of songs, titles of chapters in books titles of magazine articles, parenthetical families of titles of articles or chapters titles of essays in books.

4. Quotation marks are used to enclose words used in special ways (CLICHES) which might not otherwise be appropriate to the form or context.

Rules: periods and commas go inside quote marks unless a parenthetical citation is necessary; colons and semicolons go outside quote marks.

Semicolons

1. Use a semicolon between independent clauses not joined by coordinating conjunctions but bearing a dose relationship.

2. Use a semicolon between independent clauses joined by conjunctive adverbs or transitional expressions: however, moreover. Going to the circus is fun; however, I hate the animal abuse.

3. Use a semicolon between items in an already punctuated series.

 

Colon

1. Use a colon before a list or series with introductory word or words.

2. Use a colon before an element that defines, renames, or illustrates the preceding independent clause.

3. Use a colon before a formal quotation.

4. Use colons in time (32:30), biblical quotations (John 3:16), Memos (To: From:)