Lecture 11.Ways of protection of atmospheric air from pollution.

1. Аir from pollution

2.Harmful substances polluting the atmosphere

Air pollution is the introduction of particulates, biological molecules, or other harmful materials into Earth's atmosphere, causing diseases, allergies, death to humans, damage to other living organisms such as animals and food crops, or the natural or built environment. Air pollution may come from anthropogenicor natural sources.The atmosphere is a complex natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth.

Indoor air pollution and urban air quality are listed as two of the world's worst toxic pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst Polluted Places report. According to the 2014 WHO report, air pollution in 2012 caused the deaths of around 7 million people worldwide, an estimate roughly matched by the International Energy Agency

An air pollutant is a substance in the air that can have adverse effects on humans and the ecosystem. The substance can be solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. A pollutant can be of natural origin or man-made. Pollutants are classified as primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are usually produced from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption. Other examples include carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhaust, or the sulfur dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. Ground level ozone is a prominent example of a secondary pollutant. Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.

Before flue-gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from this power plant in New Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide.

Nitrogen dioxide diffusion tube for air quality monitoring. Positioned inLondon City.

Schematic drawing, causes and effects of air pollution: (1) greenhouse effect, (2) particulate contamination, (3) increased UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ground level ozone concentration, (6) increased levels of nitrogen oxides.

Thermal oxidizers are air pollution abatement options for hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and odorous emissions.

Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:

· Sulfur oxides (SO_x) - particularly sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula SO₂. SO₂ is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, and their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO₂, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO₂, forms H₂SO₄, and thus acid rain.[2] This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power sources.

· Nitrogen oxides (NO_x) - Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitrogen dioxide, are expelled from high temperature combustion, and are also produced during thunderstormsby electric discharge. They can be seen as a brown haze dome above or a plumedownwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is a chemical compound with the formula NO₂. It is one of several nitrogen oxides. One of the most prominent air pollutants, this reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor.

· Carbon monoxide (CO) - CO is a colorless, odorless, toxic yet non-irritating gas. It is a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide.

· Volatile organic compounds (VOC) - VOCs are a well-known outdoor air pollutant. They are categorized as either methane (CH₄) or non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhancedglobal warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases because of their role in creating ozone and prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere. This effect varies depending on local air quality. The aromatic NMVOCs benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia with prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another dangerous compound often associated with industrial use.

· Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM), atmospheric particulate matter, or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to combined particles and gas. Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged worldwide, anthropogenic aerosols—those made by human activities—currently account for approximately 10 percent of our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease, altered lung function and lung cancer.

· Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles are linked to cardiopulmonary disease.

· Toxic metals, such as lead and mercury, especially their compounds.

Cardiovascular disease

A 2007 review of evidence found ambient air pollution exposure is a risk factor correlating with increased total mortality from cardiovascular events (range: 12% to 14% per 10 microg/m³ increase).

Air pollution is also emerging as a risk factor for stroke, particularly in developing countries where pollutant levels are highest. A 2007 study found that in women, air pollution is not associated with hemorrhagic but with ischemic stroke. Air pollution was also found to be associated with increased incidence and mortality from coronary stroke in a cohort study in 2011. Associations are believed to be causal and effects may be mediated by vasoconstriction, low-grade inflammation and atherosclerosis Other mechanisms such as autonomic nervous system imbalance have also been suggested

Another pollutant associated with climate change is sulfur dioxide, a component of smog. Sulfur dioxide and closely related chemicals are known primarily as a cause of acid rain. But they also reflect light when released in the atmosphere, which keeps sunlight out and causes Earth to cool. Volcanic eruptions can spew massive amounts of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere, sometimes causing cooling that lasts for years. In fact, volcanoes used to be the main source of atmospheric sulfur dioxide; today people are.

Industrialized countries have worked to reduce levels of sulfur dioxide, smog, and smoke in order to improve people's health. But a result, not predicted until recently, is that the lower sulfur dioxide levels may actually make global warming worse. Just as sulfur dioxide from volcanoes can cool the planet by blocking sunlight, cutting the amount of the compound in the atmosphere lets more sunlight through, warming the Earth. This effect is exaggerated when elevated levels of other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere trap the additional heat.

Most people agree that to curb global warming, a variety of measures need to be taken. On a personal level, driving and flying less, recycling, and conservation reduces a person’s "carbon footprint"—the amount of carbon dioxide a person is responsible for putting into the atmosphere.

On a larger scale, governments are taking measures to limit emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. One way is through the Kyoto Protocol, an agreement between countries that they will cut back on carbon dioxide emissions. Another method is to put taxes on carbon emissions or higher taxes on gasoline, so that people and companies will have greater incentives to conserve energy and pollute less.

2. Air pollutants

An air pollutant is a substance in the air that can cause harm to humans and the environment. Indoor air pollution and urban air quality are listed as two of the world"s worst pollution problems in the 2008.

Pollutants can be classified as primary or secondary. Usually, primary pollutants are directly emitted from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption, the carbon monoxide gas from a motor vehicle exhaust or sulfur dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. One example is ground-level ozone.

The transport sector has become one of the main emitters of polluting compounds in the world and one of the main causes of the greenhouse effect. Also, a report by the European Environment Agency (EEA) points out that road transport is the single largest air polluter in Europe. Through the burning of fuel, motor vehicles, cars and trucks emit a range of health damaging pollutants, such as particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxides and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs). Some of the substances in motor vehicle exhaust also cause ‘secondary pollutants’ such as ozone, which are formed through chemical reactions in the air.

Air pollution is especially a problem in urban areas, where there is a lot of traffic. Some pollutants however can travel long distances and may accumulate in suburban or rural areas because of weather conditions such as wind or low pressure.

Compared with traffic, industrial activities are responsible for a larger total emission per year.

Main air pollutants are:

 

Sulphur oxides (SOx) – Mainly Sulphur dioxide (SO2). It is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of fuels as power sources.

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - NO2 is one of the most prominent air pollutants. Nitrogen (N) compounds, emitted as NOX and NH3, are now the principal acidifying components in our air and cause eutrophication of ecosystems.

Particulate matter - Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM) or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols.

Ozone (O3) - Ozone is not directly emitted into the atmosphere but formed from a chain of photochemical reactions following emissions of precursor gases: nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO) and volatile organic compounds (VOC).

Carbon monoxide (CO) - It is a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) - emitted from sources such as combustion, cement production, and respiration.

Heavy metals, such as arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb) and nickel (Ni)

Benzene and benzo(a)pyrene

Ammonia (NH3) - emitted from agricultural processes.

Other remarkable air pollutants that will be explained in separate chapters are:
Volatile organic compounds - VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutants

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to the ozone layer

Health impacts

Air pollution is a major environmental risk to health. Numerous scientific studies have linked air pollution to health effects including:
- harm to the respiratory system, leading to the development or aggravation of respiratory diseases, decreased lung function, increased frequency and severity of respiratory symptoms such as coughing and difficulty breathing, or increased susceptibility to respiratory infections;

- harm to the cardiovascular system;

-harm to the nervous system, affecting learning, memory and behaviour;

-harm to the reproductive system;

-cancer
Some of these impacts may result in premature death. Sensitive individuals, such as older adults and children and people with pre-existing heart and lung diseases or diabetes, appear to be at greater risk of air pollution-related health effects.

Asthma and respiratory conditions are among the most common effects on human health and they raise especial concern in the case of children. 10% of European children suffer asthma, allergies and respiratory conditions associated with air pollution (particles).

In 2005, an estimated 5 million years of lost life were caused by fine particulate matter pollution (PM2.5) alone in the EEA-32 countries (EEA, 2010).

Ecosystem impacts. Air pollution also damages the environment. For example, ozone can damage crops and other vegetation, impairing growth. These impacts can reduce the ability of plants to take up CO2 from the atmosphere and indirectly affect entire ecosystems and the planet"s climate. The atmospheric deposition of sulphur and nitrogen compounds has acidifying effects on soils and freshwaters. Acidification causes disturbances in the function and structure of ecosystems with harmful ecological effects, including biodiversity loss. Likewise, deposition of nitrogen compounds can lead to eutrophication, which constitutes an oversupply of nutrient nitrogen in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Consequences include changes in species diversity, invasions of new species and leaching of nitrate to groundwater.

Ozone-depleting substances. The stratosphere, a high layer of the atmosphere contains a high concentration of ozone. Ozone layer depletion allows a greater amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation to reach the surface of the earth. An increase of UV radiation levels implies a significant harm to human health (skin cancer, cataracts, damage to the immune system) and to ecosystems, wild life and agriculture.

Some ozone-depleting substances are assigned with risk phrase R59 (according to DSD) and EU hazard statement system EUH059 (according to CLP): Hazardous to the ozone layer.

Greenhouse gases. Air pollution may also impact the Earth"s climate. Some air pollutants interfere with the Earth"s energy balance and are therefore known as "climate forcers".

These can either be gases (e.g. ozone) or airborne particulate matter (aerosols). Some climate forcers reflect solar radiation (e.g. sulphate aerosols) leading to net cooling, while others (e.g. black carbon aerosols) absorb solar radiation, thereby warming the atmosphere. In addition, aerosols influence the formation, microphysics and optical properties of clouds, resulting in indirect climatological effects.

Deposition of certain aerosols (e.g. black carbon) may also change the Earth"s surface reflectivity (albedo), especially on ice- and snow-covered surfaces, thereby accelerating melting.

 

Lecture 12.Pollution and reasons of the atmosphere of Kazakhstan.

 

 

1. Reasons of the atmosphere of Kazakhstan

2.Structure and formation stages of modern research directions.

Air pollution comes from both natural and human-made (anthropogenic) sources. However, globally human-made pollutants from combustion, construction, mining, agriculture and warfare are increasingly significant in the air pollution equation.

Motor vehicle emissions are one of the leading causes of air pollution. China, United States, Russia, India Mexico, and Japanare the world leaders in air pollution emissions. Principal stationary pollution sources include chemical plants, coal-fired power plants, oil refineries, petrochemical plants, nuclear waste disposal activity, incinerators, large livestock farms (dairy cows, pigs, poultry, etc.), PVCfactories, metals production factories, plastics factories, and other heavy industry. Agricultural air pollution comes from contemporary practices which include clear felling and burning of natural vegetation as well as spraying of pesticides and herbicides

About 400 million metric tons of hazardous wastes are generated each year. The United States alone produces about 250 million metric tons. Americans constitute less than 5% of the world's population, but produce roughly 25% of the world’s CO₂, and generate approximately 30% of world’s waste. In 2007, China has overtaken the United States as the world's biggest producer of CO₂,while still far behind based on per capita pollution - ranked 78th among the world's nations.^[

An industrial area, with a power plant, south of Yangzhou's downtown,China

In February 2007, a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), representing the work of 2,500 scientists, economists, and policymakers from more than 120 countries, said that humans have been the primary cause of global warming since 1950. Humans have ways to cut greenhouse gas emissions and avoid the consequences of global warming, a major climate report concluded. But to change the climate, the transition from fossil fuels like coal and oil needs to occur within decades, according to the final report this year from the UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

Some of the more common soil contaminants are chlorinated hydrocarbons (CFH), heavy metals (such as chromium, cadmium–found in rechargeable batteries, and lead–found in lead paint, aviation fuel and still in some countries, gasoline), MTBE, zinc, arsenic and benzene. In 2001 a series of press reports culminating in a book called Fateful Harvest unveiled a widespread practice of recycling industrial byproducts into fertilizer, resulting in the contamination of the soil with various metals. Ordinary municipal landfills are the source of many chemical substances entering the soil environment (and often groundwater), emanating from the wide variety of refuse accepted, especially substances illegally discarded there, or from pre-1970 landfills that may have been subject to little control in the U.S. or EU. There have also been some unusual releases of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, commonly called dioxins for simplicity, such as TCDD.

Pollution can also be the consequence of a natural disaster. For example, hurricanes often involve water contamination from sewage, and petrochemical spills from rupturedboats or automobiles. Larger scale and environmental damage is not uncommon when coastal oil rigs or refineries are involved. Some sources of pollution, such as nuclear power plants or oil tankers, can produce widespread and potentially hazardous releases when accidents occur.

In the case of noise pollution the dominant source class is the motor vehicle, producing about ninety percent of all unwanted noise worldwide.

Effects

Human health

Soil pollution § Health effects, Toxic hotspots, and Hydraulic fracturing § Health effects

Overview of main health effects on humans from some common types of pollution.

Adverse air quality can kill many organisms including humans. Ozone pollution can cause respiratory disease,cardiovascular disease, throat inflammation, chest pain, and congestion. Water pollution causes approximately 14,000 deaths per day, mostly due to contamination of drinking water by untreated sewage in developing countries. An estimated 500 million Indians have no access to a proper toilet, Over ten million people in India fell ill with waterborne illnesses in 2013, and 1,535 people died, most of them children. Nearly 500 million Chinese lack access to safe drinking water. A 2010 analysis estimated that 1.2 million people died prematurely each year inChina because of air pollution. The WHO estimated in 2007 that air pollution causes half a million deaths per year in India. Studies have estimated that the number of people killed annually in the United States could be over 50,000.

Oil spills can cause skin irritations and rashes. Noise pollution induces hearing loss, high blood pressure, stress, andsleep disturbance. Mercury has been linked to developmental deficits in children and neurologic symptoms. Older people are majorly exposed to diseases induced by air pollution. Those with heart or lung disorders are at additional risk. Children and infants are also at serious risk. Lead and other heavy metals have been shown to cause neurological problems. Chemical and radioactive substances can cause cancer and as well as birth defects.

 

Environmental pollution, especially atmospheric pollution, is another urgent problem in Kazakhstan. In some big cities and industrial centers concentrations of some toxic substances, such as heavy metal dust, sulfur dioxide, carbon oxide, and some others, are greater by tens of time than maximum permissible concentrations (MPC). The most acute situation is typical of the cities Taraz, Temirtau, Almaty, Oskemen, Leninogor, Shymkent, Balkash, and some others. Pollutant concentrations in these cities within a year are by 5 to 10 times greater than MPC.

Atmospheric air is significantly polluted in the regions, where mineral resources are exploited. Air pollution results also from spaceships launching at the Baikonur space center.

Apart from air pollution there is also pollution of surface waters and other components of the biosphere in the industrially developed regions. For example, 35 to 40 % of the Syrdarya run-off are formed by industrial and communal waste waters as well as drainage waters. Pathogens of dysentery, enteric fever, paratyphoid, hepatitis, and also such hazardous substances as DDT, benzene hexachlonde (BHC), etc. are present in water permanently.

The industrial pollution is aggravated by large-scale chemical pollution caused by agriculture. Various chemical means for plant protection, defoliants, pesticides, and excessive fertilizers pollute both environmental and foodstuffs.

The strain environmental situation has arose in the vicinity of nuclear testing ground in Semey. Ground tests of nuclear weapons has been held there from 1948 till 1964 followed by underground tests from 1964 till 1989. Testing of nuclear weapons has caused negative effect on the environment and population health in this region.

A diversity of factors form the radioecological situation on the territory of the Republic, the main factors as of 1996 were:

• Activity of the former Semipalatinsk Nuclear Testing Site;
• Nuclear explosions for purpose of the national economy, made in 1949-1961;
• Activity of enterprises of nuclear industry complex;
• Activity of the Lobnor Nuclear testing site in China and global falls;
• Natural radioactive anomalies in residential areas and underground waters, used for drinking water supply.

Monitoring of radioactive contamination was carried out lately on haphazard basis, however according to observations in 1996 (40 meteostations of Kazhydromet) it has been defined that:

• Radioactive contamination is mainly caused by radionuclides, availability of which in earth atmosphere is caused by wind transfer of radioactive particles from a littered surface;
• Concentrations of radionuclides of both natural and technical origin vary within limits, being less than maximum admissible concentration, approved by the norms of radiation safety;
• There is a trend of decrease of caesium – 137 concentration, started in 1986, which in 1996 became 0,06*10^-5Bк per m³ Sum of beta-ray active products was –20*10^-5 Bk per m³;
• Air caesium – 137 content is insignificant, average value of density of falls on the territory of Kazakhstan was 0,5 Bk per m²;
• Radiation level on the territory of the Republic of Kazakhstan was 11-18 micron per hour, it shall be noted, that from products of nuclear explosions only caesium – 137 affects;
• Underground nuclear explosions in 1996 at Lobnor Testing site in China have not affected the radiation situation on the territory of Kazakhstan;
• On the territory of Semipalatinsk Nuclear Testing Site there are spread artificial radio-isotopes: caesium – 137, strontium – 90, europium – 152, 155; americium – 241, plutonium – 239, 240, cobalt – 60, which in opinion of experts of the National Nuclear Center of the Republic of Kazakhstan as well as scientists and specialists from the USA, France, Russia, IAEA is a great danger for activity of the field.

In order to protect the environment in the republic measures are worked out and implemented, which are aimed at rational use of the Earth’s mineral resources (combined use of mineral resources, land reclamation and planting on former dumps, etc.), waste water treatment, reduction of air pollution caused by industrial enterprises (presently about 80 % of hazardous substances emitted by the stationary sources of air pollution are caught and neutralized), implementation of wasteless technologies and water recycling systems, development of environmentally appropriate energy sources and modes or transportation, economic stimulating of resource conservation, substitution of biological plant protection for chemical one, etc.

 

2. In physical cosmology, structure formation refers to the formation of galaxies, galaxy clusters and larger structures from small early density fluctuations. Theuniverse, as is now known from observations of the cosmic microwave background radiation, began in a hot, dense, nearly uniform state approximately13.8 billion years ago.^[1] However, looking in the sky today, we see structures on all scales, from stars and planets to galaxies and, on still larger scales still,galaxy clusters and sheet-like structures of galaxies separated by enormous voids containing few galaxies. Structure formation attempts to model how these structures formed by gravitational instability of small early density ripples.

 

Lecture 13.