Water is the most important element of the biosphere.

The hydrosphere (from Greek ὕδωρ - hydōr, "water"^[1] and σφαῖρα - sphaira, "sphere"^[2]) is the combined mass of water found on, under, and above the surface of a planet.

It has been estimated that there are 1386 million cubic kilometres of water on Earth.^[3] This includes water in liquid and frozen forms in groundwater, oceans, lakes and streams. Saltwater accounts for 97.5% of this amount. Fresh water accounts for only 2.5%. Of this fresh water, 68.7% is in the form of ice and permanent snow cover in the Arctic, the Antarctic, and mountain glaciers. 29.9% is in the form of fresh groundwater. Only 0.26% of the fresh water on Earth is in easily accessible lakes, reservoirs and river systems.^[3] The total mass of the Earth's hydrosphere is about 1.4 × 10¹⁸ tonnes, which is about 0.023% of Earth's total mass. About 20 × 10¹² tonnesof this is in Earth's atmosphere (for practical purposes, 1 cubic metre of water weighs one tonne). Approximately 75% of Earth's surface, an area of some 361 million square kilometers (139.5 million square miles), is covered by ocean. The average salinity of Earth's oceans is about 35 grams of salt per kilogram of sea water (3.5%)

Water cycle[edit]

Main article: Water cycle

The hydrological cycle transfers water from one state or reservoir to another. Reservoirs include atmospheric moisture (snow, rain and clouds),streams, oceans, rivers, lakes, groundwater, subterranean aquifers, polar icecaps and saturated soil. Solar energy, in the form of heat and light (insolation), and gravity cause the transfer from one state to another over periods from hours to thousands of years. Most evaporation comes from the oceans and is returned to the earth as snow or rain (page 27).^[5] Sublimation refers to evaporation from snow and ice. Transpiration refers to the expiration of water through the minute pores or stomata of trees.Evapotranspiration is the term used by hydrologists in reference to the three processes together, transpiration, sublimation and evaporation.^[5]

In his book Water, Marq de Villiers described the hydrosphere as a closed system in which water exists. The hydrosphere is intricate, complex, interdependent, all-pervading and stable and "seems purpose-built for regulating life (de Villiers 2003:26)."^[5] De Villiers claimed that, "On earth, the total amount of water has almost certainly not changed since geological times: what we had then we still have. Water can be polluted, abused, and misused but it is neither created nor destroyed, it only migrates. There is no evidence that water vapor escapes into space (page 26).

"Every year the turnover of water on Earth involves 577,000 km³ of water. This is water that evaporates from the oceanic surface (502,800 km3) and from land (74,200 km³). The same amount of water falls as atmospheric precipitation, 458,000 km³ on the ocean and 119,000 km³ on land. The difference between precipitation and evaporation from the land surface (119,000 - 74,200 = 44,800 km³/year) represents the total runoff of the Earth's rivers (42,700 km³/year) and direct groundwater runoff to the ocean (2100 km³/year). These are the principal sources of fresh water to support life necessities and man's economic activities."

"Specific water availability is the residual (after use) per capita quantity of fresh water."^[3] Fresh water resources are unevenly distributed in terms of space and time and can go from floods to water shortages within months in the same area. In 1998 76% of the total population had a specific water availability of less than 5.0 thousand m3 per year per capita. Already by 1998, 35% of the global population suffered "very low or catastrophically low water supplies" and Shiklomanov predicted that the situation would deteriorate in the twenty-first century with "most of the Earth's population will be living under the conditions of low or catastrophically low water supply" by 2025. There is only 2.5% of fresh water in the hydrosphere.

2. Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful. Uses of water include agricultural,industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. The majority of human uses require fresh water.

97% of the water on the Earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water; slightly over two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps.^[1] The remaining unfrozen freshwater is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air.^[2]

Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world's supply of groundwater is steadily decreasing, with depletion occurring most prominently in Asia and North America, although it is still unclear how much natural renewal balances this usage, and whether ecosystems are threatened.^[3] The framework for allocating water resources to water users (where such a framework exists) is known as water rights.

Surface water is water in a river, lake or fresh water wetland. Surface water is naturally replenished by precipitation and naturally lost through discharge to the oceans, evaporation, evapotranspiration and groundwater recharge.

Although the only natural input to any surface water system is precipitation within its watershed, the total quantity of water in that system at any given time is also dependent on many other factors. These factors include storage capacity in lakes, wetlands and artificial reservoirs, the permeability of the soil beneath these storage bodies, the runoff characteristics of the land in the watershed, the timing of the precipitation and local evaporation rates. All of these factors also affect the proportions of water loss.

Human activities can have a large and sometimes devastating impact on these factors. Humans often increase storage capacity by constructing reservoirs and decrease it by draining wetlands. Humans often increase runoff quantities and velocities by paving areas and channelizing stream flow.

The total quantity of water available at any given time is an important consideration. Some human water users have an intermittent need for water. For example, many farms require large quantities of water in the spring, and no water at all in the winter. To supply such a farm with water, a surface water system may require a large storage capacity to collect water throughout the year and release it in a short period of time. Other users have a continuous need for water, such as a power plantthat requires water for cooling. To supply such a power plant with water, a surface water system only needs enough storage capacity to fill in when average stream flow is below the power plant's need.

Nevertheless, over the long term the average rate of precipitation within a watershed is the upper bound for average consumption of natural surface water from that watershed.

Natural surface water can be augmented by importing surface water from another watershed through a canal or pipeline. It can also be artificially augmented from any of the other sources listed here, however in practice the quantities are negligible. Humans can also cause surface water to be "lost" (i.e. become unusable) through pollution.

Groundwater[edit]

Main article: Groundwater

Relative groundwater travel times in the subsurface

Groundwater is fresh water located in the subsurface pore space of soil and rocks. It is also water that is flowing withinaquifers below the water table. Sometimes it is useful to make a distinction between groundwater that is closely associated with surface water and deep groundwater in an aquifer (sometimes called "fossil water").

A shipot is a common water source in Central Ukrainian villages

Groundwater can be thought of in the same terms as surface water: inputs, outputs and storage. The critical difference is that due to its slow rate of turnover, groundwater storage is generally much larger (in volume) compared to inputs than it is for surface water. This difference makes it easy for humans to use groundwater unsustainably for a long time without severe consequences. Nevertheless, over the long term the average rate of seepage above a groundwater source is the upper bound for average consumption of water from that source.

The natural input to groundwater is seepage from surface water. The natural outputs from groundwater are springs and seepage to the oceans.

If the surface water source is also subject to substantial evaporation, a groundwater source may become saline. This situation can occur naturally under endorheic bodies of water, or artificially under irrigated farmland. In coastal areas, human use of a groundwater source may cause the direction of seepage to ocean to reverse which can also causesoil salinization. Humans can also cause groundwater to be "lost" (i.e. become unusable) through pollution. Humans can increase the input to a groundwater source by building reservoirs or detention ponds.

Frozen water

Iceberg near Newfoundland

Several schemes have been proposed to make use of icebergs as a water source, however to date this has only been done for research purposes. Glacier runoff is considered to be surface water.

The Himalayas, which are often called "The Roof of the World", contain some of the most extensive and rough high altitude areas on Earth as well as the greatest area of glaciers and permafrost outside of the poles. Ten of Asia’s largest rivers flow from there, and more than a billion people’s livelihoods depend on them. To complicate matters, temperatures there are rising more rapidly than the global average. In Nepal, the temperature has risen by 0.6 degrees Celsius over the last decade, whereas globally, the Earth has warmed approximately 0.7 degrees Celsius over the last hundred years

Lecture 16.