Various models around the world

Constitutions with a high degree of separation of powers are found worldwide. The UK system is distinguished by a particular entwining of powers. India's democratic system also offers a clear separation of power under Lok Sabha (lower house of parliament), Rajya Sabha (up­per house of Parliament), and the President of India, who overlooks independent governing branches such as the Election commission and the Judiciary. Under the Indian constitution, just as in the British system, the Prime Minister is a head of the governing party and func­tions through a selected group of ministers. In Italy the powers are completely separated, even if Council of Ministers need the vote of confidence from both chambers of Parliament, that's however formed by a wide number of members (almost 1,000).

Countries with little separation of power include New Zealand and Canada. Canada makes limited use of separation of powers in practice, although in theory it distinguishes between branches of gov­ernment.

Complete separation-of-powers systems are almost always presi­dential, although theoretically this need not be the case. There are a few historical exceptions, such as the Directoire system of revolution­ary France. Switzerland offers an example of non-Presidential separa­tion of powers today: It is run by a seven-man executive branch, the

Federal Council. However, some might argue that Switzerland does not have a strong separation of powers system, as the Federal Council is appointed by parliament (but not dependent on parliament), and I he judiciary has no power of review.

Worldwide there are not only the three supreme powers. After eight years of social conflict, the question of who would lead Costa RiCa and which transformationist model the State would use was de­cided by who killed the president. A constituent assembly followed and drew up a new constitution, approved in 1949. This document was an edit of the constitution of 1871, as the constituent assembly rejected more radical corporativist ideas proposed by the ruling junta. It estab­lished the three supreme powers as the legislature, executive, and ju­dicial branches, but also created two other autonomous state organs that have equivalent power but not equivalent rank. The first is the Supreme Elections Tribunal (electoral branch) which controls elec-(ions and makes unique, unappealable decisions on their outcomes.

The second is the office of the Comptroller General (auditory branch), an autonomous and independent organ nominally subordi­nate to the unicameral legislative assembly. All budgets of ministries find municipalities must pass through this agency, including the exe­cution of budget items such as contracting for routine operations. The Comptroller also provides financial vigilance over government offic­es and office holders, and routinely brings actions to remove mayors lor malfeasance, firmly establishing this organization as the fifth branch of the Republic.

The European Union has four branches.

The five institutions of the European Union are:

1. European Commission – executive

2. European Parliament and Council of the European Union – legislative

3. European Court of Justice – judicial

4. European Court of Auditors – auditory.

N o t e s:

entwining of powers	5. объединение властей
lower house	6. нижняя палата
vote of confidence	7. вотум доверия
Directoire	8. директория
Federal Council	9. Федеральный совет
power of review	10. право пересмотра
junta	11. хунта
Supreme Elections Tribunal	12. Верховный суд по разбору ходатайств о расследовании действительности выборов
unappealable	13. окончательный, неподлежащий обжалованию
Comptroller General	14. Генеральный контролер (Глава генерального отчетно-ревизионного управления)
auditory branch	15. аудиторская (ревизионная) ветвь власти
vigilance	16. бдительность
European Court of Justice	17. Суд Европейского сообщества (ЕС)
European Court of Auditors	18. Счетная палата ЕС
malfeasance	19. должностное преступление

 

Answer the questions.

1. What is the UK system distinguished by?

2. What is the democratic system in India characterized by?

3. What powers are there in Italy?

4. What countries are with little separation of powers?

5. What country offers an example of non-Presidential separa­tion of powers?

6. What branches are there in Costa Rica?

7. How many branches does the European Union include?

Render into English.

Разделение властей сегодня является общепризнанной нормой функционирования демократического государства. Отсутствие монополии на власть любого политического ин­ститута – непременное условие развития демократии. В со­временных демократических государствах три ветви власти представлены следующим образом: законодательная власть, исполнительная власть, судебная власть.

Высшим законодательным органом выступает парламент, который, как правило, состоит из двух палат: нижней и вер­хней. Нижняя палата формируется посредством прямых выбо­ров, а верхняя формируется в различных странах по-разному.

Исполнительная ветвь государственной власти имеет бо­лее сложную структуру, это самая многочисленная по соста­ву ветвь государственного управления. В России в органах ис­полнительной власти насчитывается около 500 тыс. человек.

Взаимодействие законодательной и исполнительной вла­сти является весьма сложной проблемой. Исполнительная власть – президент (или премьер-министр) и правительство – обязаны в той или иной мере согласовывать свои действия с законодательными институтами, отчитываться перед ними. В президентских республиках глава государства может наложить запрет на любой законодательный документ или требовать его доработки. В то же время парламент имеет право отменить ка­кие-то решения правительства или президента.

Основным гарантом соблюдения законности в деятель­ности законодательной и исполнительной властей является судебная власть. Во многих странах надзор за соблюдением конституции возложен на Верховный суд.

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