Module 1. Summary and abstract

ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ

 

Данное учебное пособие содержит практические рекомендации по аннотированию, реферированию и подготовке презентаций по научной литературе на английском языке для студентов старших курсов по специальности «Информационные системы и телекоммуникации».

Целью пособия является развитие у студентов технических ВУЗов навыков извлечения основной информации из первоисточника оригинальной научной литературы, умения точно и кратко излагать содержание работы в письменной (посредством написания аннотации и реферата) и устной форме (посредством подготовки презентации).

Пособие содержит три основных раздела: аннотирование, реферирование, презентация.

Каждый раздел включает четкую структуру, требования, рекомендации, языковые шаблоны и примеры аннотирования, реферирования и подготовки презентаций.

Тщательная проработка этого материала позволяет овладеть навыками выполнения этих работ.

Разделы «Аннотирование» и «Реферирование» содержат примеры аннотаций и рефератов, научные статьи, охватывающие ряд приборостроительных специальностей, поэтому могут быть использованы студентами старших курсов смежных специальностей факультета ИУ.

 

Желаем удачи!

 

 

MODULE 1. SUMMARY AND ABSTRACT

UNIT 1. HOW TO MAKE UP A SUMMARY

Recommendations for making up a summary

Follow the steps below:

1. read the text to get the general idea;

2. study the illustrations;

3. read the text to single out the main information.

The text given bellow “How to make up a summary” is written in Russian to make it more understandable for the students.

Определение

Реферат – краткое точное изложение содержания документа, включающее основные фактические сведения и выводы, без дополнительной интерпретации или критических замечаний автора реферата (по ГОСТ 7.9).

Реферат – от латинского слова “докладываю”. На английском языке есть несколько слов: 1) presis (реферат-конспект), 2) summary (реферат-резюме) – может стоять в начале и в конце английского текста, выполняя роль conclusion, 3) abstract – американский вариант слова “реферат”, 4) synopsis (используют и в значении “аннотация” и в значении “реферат”).

Структура реферата

Реферат включает следующие аспекты содержания исходного документа:

— предмет, тему, цель работы;

— метод или методологию проведения работы;

— результаты работы;

— область применения результатов;

— выводы;

— дополнительную информацию.

Объем текста

Объем текста реферата определяется в первую очередь содержанием документа, количеством сведений и их научной ценностью. Объем текста реферата составляет в среднем 850 знаков.

Суть реферирования. Требования к изложению текста реферата

Реферат - это вторичная публикация, построенная на материалах статьи. Основная идея текста выражена ограниченным количеством слов. Исключается иллюстративный материал, примеры, сравнения, пояснения, сноски, ссылки и т.п. Разделы не выделяются. Жанр реферата - отсутствие избыточности, уплотнение информации, краткое изложение. Субъективная оценка не допускается. Реферат строят на языке оригинала, используя цитирование, перефраз.

Существует несколько способов сжатия и свертывания информации текста, используемых при написании реферата: компрессия, супрессия и конденсация (перефраз).

Компрессия - это сжатие путем лексических и грамматических изменений. Придаточные предложения исключены. Мысль и в русском и в английском языке излагается простыми предложениями.

В русском сжатом тексте возможны неопределенно-личные предложения, причастия и деепричастия, такие слова "тогда как", "так же", "как и" и др.

В английском сжатом тексте исключаются безличные предложения, но часто используется в конце предложения пассивная конструкция в Present и Past Simple, Participle I и II в функции определения, Infinitive, Gerund, сложные существительные, парные союзы, множественное число, слова-заменители, суффикс - able и др.

Таким образом, компрессия - это механическое сжатие текста большого объёма в малый.

Супрессия - это не просто механическое сжатие, а смысловая конденсация с пропуском деталей, повторов, суммирование перечислений и примеров, группировка и перегруппировка. Поиск смысловых предложений требует тренировки. Этому надо учиться.

Перефраз может быть лексический и логико-смысловой, т.е. читая текст надо видеть какими синонимами автор выражает одну и ту же мысль и брать наиболее лаконичное высказывание (авторский перефраз), обобщающие элементы в виде слов, словосочетаний, предложений. Исключение материала происходит за счет выбрасывания дополнительной информации и сохранения основной.

Следует делить текст на смысловые группы и сокращая их писать реферат. Предпочтительно насыщение реферата основной терминолексикой. С этой целью студентам рекомендуется вести тематический словарь ключевых терминов к каждой статье.

В реферате термины, используемые более 3-х раз, можно давать в сокращенном виде.

Необходимо выделять повторы по мере чтения статьи, т.к. именно повторы составляют главную тему, и автор выражает их синонимично, используя перефраз.

Нужно учитывать, что существуют тексты, где:

1) обобщение в начале (дедуктивный тип), т.е. от общего к частному,

2) обобщение в конце (индуктивный тип), т.е. от частного к общему,

3) обобщение в начале и конце (рамочный тип),

4) обобщение осуществляют из составляющих элементов, ключевых вех нет (list text).

Поэтому, прежде чем приступить к написанию реферата, следует определить тип текста и затем выделить его основную информацию.

Большое значение следует придавать заголовку, т.к. он определяет тему, и переводить его рекомендуется в конце реферирования при оформлении реферата.

Нужно учитывать типичные ошибки и их избегать: 1) высокая избыточность, 2) дублирование информации, 3) отсутствие последовательности, 4) громоздкость фраз, 5) потеря основной информации (сверить по разделу "резюме" /"conclusion"/ во избежание этого), 6) нарушение специфики стиля (т.е. необходимы экономная структура предложений, включение терминов, исключение описательных слов).

Рекомендуется проверить себя по разделу "Выводы", который является планом.

Образец оформления реферата

Название статьи в русском переводе, название статьи на английском языке, Ф.И.О. автора (-ов) на англ. языке, название источника (на англ. языке) - все выходные данные и стр. (например, 1-10), количество рисунков и таблиц.

 

Common summary patterns

 

Реферат

 

Рассматривается метод быстрых алгебраических атак. Для осуществления атаки используется система уравнений. Свойства уравнений позволяют уменьшить степень уравнений системы и повысить скорость атак. Каждое уравнение делится на две части: первая - высокой степени, вторая - низкой. Главная идея метода - составление такой линейной комбинации уравнений, при которой часть уравнений с мономами высокой степени обнуляется и получается новая система. В ней степень уравнений меньше степени исходной системы. Метод основан на теореме о существовании ряда коэффициентов в линейной комбинации уравнений. Сумма частей уравнений высокой степени равна нулю. При уменьшении степени уравнений с достаточно малыми затратами времени и ресурсов вместо алгебраических атак применяют быстрые алгебраические атаки.

 

Summary

One of the algebraic attacks is fast algebraic attacks. The system of equations is used to reveal the cipher stream key. The equations properties allow to reduce the overall degree of the system equations in an efficient pre-computation step. This method is an enormous speed-up of the whole attack. Each equation is divided into two parts: the first part is of high degree, the second one is of low degree. The main idea of reducing the system overall degree is to eliminate high degree parts of the equations by calculating a linear combination of several equations, and to get a new functions of lower degree. The method is based on a theorem about the existence of some coefficients in linear combination. The sum of high degree parts of equations is zero. The degree reduction is achievable with sufficiently little effort and fast algebraic attacks are superior to algebraic attacks.

 

 

Определение

Аннотация – краткая характеристика документа с точки зрения его назначения, содержания, вида, формы и других особенностей
(по ГОСТ 7.9).

В аннотации сообщается то, о чем говорится в документе, тогда как в реферате кратко излагается то, что говорится в статье.

Структура аннотации

Аннотация включает характеристику основной темы, проблемы объекта, цели работы, ее результаты и перспективы развития темы. В аннотации указывают, что нового несет в себе данный документ в сравнении с другими, родственными по тематике и целевому назначению.

Требования к изложению, использованию терминологии и оформлению аннотации аналогичны требованиям к реферату.

В русском варианте аннотации используются неопределенно-личные предложения типа: Рассмотрены …. Дан обзор …. Представлен …. В английском варианте аннотации в конце предложений используется глагол в страдательном залоге в единственном или множественном числе, например: …are considered, …are overviewed, …is presented. Смотри далее примеры аннотаций.

Рекомендуемый средний объем аннотации 250-500 печатных знаков.

Common abstract patterns

Аннотация

Рассмотрены три подхода к решению проблемы искусственного интеллекта. Дан обзор интеллектуальных агентов, нейронных сетей и работающих с живыми тканями химических блоков. Приведены достоинства и недостатки каждого из них. Представлены области применения этих методов.

 

Abstract

Three approaches to the decision of an artificial intelligence problem are considered. Intellectual agents, the neural networks and working with a living tissue the chemical blocks are overviewed. Merits and demerits of each of them are shown. Scopes of these methods are presented.

 

Аннотация

Рассмотрены принципы быстрых алгебраических атак и необходимое для их проведения доказательство теоремы. Описан алгоритм осуществления быстрых атак. Приведен пример их реализации в поле двоичных чисел.

Abstract

Fast algebraic attack principles, required theorem proof are presented. Fast attacks algorithm is given. Example of attacks realization in binary field is described.

UNIT 3. PRACTICAL TRAINING

Essential Vocabulary

сomputational load - объем вычислений

sample - выборка

adaptive filter weight - весовой коэффициент

адаптивного фильтра

finite impulse response filter - фильтр с конечным

импульсным откликом

marginal overhead - запас по перегрузке

weight value - значение весовых

коэффициентов

bulk delay - большая задержка

filter length of N-points - фильтр обработанный

(N выборок сигнала)

sampling rate - частота выборки

overall circuit efficiency - суммарная эффективность

 

Classical Digital Design

Given the limitations of currently available technology, only adaption algorithms which are relatively simple in a computational sense may be executed in digital terms at real-time bandwidths. The major computational load is imposed by the need to perform the linear convolution of the input signal samples with the stored filter weights (the finite impulse response filter) with a marginal overhead being provided by the adaption algorithm. To provide updates for the weight value estimates for the filter the adaption algorithm

must be supplied with samples of the signal input and the output error from the estimation process. This information permits implementation of any of the algorithms.

Before considering the implementation of the adaption process itself we shall examine one common approach for implementing the FIR filter section. This technique is illustrated in Figure 1. It uses a single digital multiplier with vectors

Figure 1. Block diagram of a
fixed response digital filter
using a single multiplexed multiplier.

 

representing the incoming signals and the filter weights stored in digital memory. This implementation with digital memories is a development of the initial versions of this realization, which was based on analog (bulk delay) memories. Each pair of inputs (signal and weight) is presented to the multiplier sequentially and the mul­tiplication product is accumulated. Therefore, for a filter length of N points the multiplier must operate at N times the sampling rate of the filter. This, obviously, provides a funda­mental limitation to the available time-bandwidth product, given a target sampling frequency. The time-bandwidth product may be extended by cascading two or more such filter without affecting the sampling frequency. This, however,, results in the use of fur­ther multipliers_, therefore increasing the cost and power consum­ption of the system. A number of alternative schemes for filter implementation may be used which have various trade-offs in terms of overall circuit efficiency.

 

Task 2. Single out the key information of the text and make up an abstract and summary in Russian then in English. Use information compression, lexico-grammar rule: use simple sentences, Participle I, II, Infinitive, Gerund, etc. excluding excessive data.

Аннотация

Представлен цифровой алгоритм адаптации для корректировки оценок значений весовых коэффициентов фильтра. Описан общий подход к реализации секции фильтра КИХ - типа на примере одиночного цифрового умножителя. Кратко отмечены некоторые трудности использования альтернативных схем для реализации фильтра.

 

Abstract

Digital adaption algorithm to provide updates for the weight value estimates is presented. Common approach for implementing the FIR filter with a single digital multiplier is described. A number of alternative schemes for filter implementation are briefly touched upon.

 

Реферат

Рассматривается реализация цифрового алгоритма адаптации в полосе частот в реальном масштабе времени. Алгоритм адаптации выполняет корректировку оценок значений весовых коэффициентов подачей на фильтр выборки входного сигнала и выходного сигнала ошибки процесса оценивания. Общий подход к реализации секции фильтра КИХ – типа рассматривается на примере использования одиночного цифрового умножителя. Каждая пара входных воздействий последовательно поступает на умножитель. Произведение накапливается. Произведение «время – ширина полосы частот» увеличивают каскадированием фильтров без влияния на частоту выборки. Это приводит к применению дополнительных умножителей и увеличению стоимости системы и потребляемой мощности. Альтернативные схемы для реализации фильтра имеют недостатки в отношении их суммарной эффективности.

 

Summary

The implementation of digital adaption algorithm at real-time bandwidths is considered. It is relatively simple in a computational sense. The main computation is determined by the linear convolution of the input signal samples with the stored filter weights of the finite impulse response (FIR) filter. The common approach for implementing the FIR filter section uses a single digital multiplier. The inputs (signal and weight) are presented to the multiplier sequentially. The multiplication product is accumulated. The time-bandwidth product is extended by cascading filter without affecting the sampling frequency. Alternative schemes for filter have overall circuit efficiency trade-offs.

Summary

The interaction between man and machines has become an important topic for the robotic community. It can generalize the use of robots. For active human-robot (H/R) interaction scheme, the robot needs to detect human faces in its vicinity and then interpret canonical gestures of the tracked person assuming this interlocutor has been beforehand identified. We depict functions suitable to detect and recognize faces in video stream and then focus on face and hand tracking functions. An efficient colour segmentation is based on a watershed on the skin-like coloured pixels. A new measurement model is proposed to take into account both shape and colour cues in the particle filter to track face or hand silhouettes in video stream. An extension of the basic condensation algorithm is proposed to achieve recognition of the current hand posture and automatic switching between multiple templates in the tracking loop. Results of tracking and recognition using show the process robustness in cluttered environments and in various light conditions. The limits of the method are to be discussed in future.

 

Summary

Maes's method is based on interaction with the user. It is realized as the organizer of e-mail and the working schedule. Its "intellectual agents" can evolve to a better performing versions by a principal of genetic selection. Grossberg's model of artificial intelligence is based on imitation of brain cells work. It uses permanent and temporary memory. It is applied in the robots recognizing objects while moving. Conrad's "computer-in-jar" replaces electronic devices altogether with the chemical blocks. It works according to the same type of molecules interaction. It is capable to perform operations inaccessible to conventional computers. These developments are created for optimization and increasing artificial intelligence opportunities.

 

Summary

Brain flexibility and power to deal with rapidly changing, ambiguous information can in theory be embodied in computer programs. Neural networks mimic brain strategy of having a large number of switch-like modules. These networks have internal feedback. It gives them the ability of reexamining their own decisions and performing better next time. Temporary memory constantly signals the more permanent memory back and forth to imitate short term and long term memory of a person. Versions of Grossberg's feedback networks found appliances at aircraft building and medical care.

 

Task 3.Try to make up one or two dialogues on the subjects presented in the summary patterns given above. Develop the idea of the dialogue according to your interest and knowledge. Attract your mates to the discussion.

A dialogue pattern

A. Well! Are you going to visit classes?

B. No, I am not. Don’t you know our instructor fell ill. He’ll come in a week, I hope.

A. I am sorry. He is a qualified tutor to my opinion. The lectures he delivers are interesting and informative. Recently he has given the information about Grossberg's model.

B. As I know this model is based on imitation of brain cells work. I am curious about this subject.

A. It is worth to ask the tutor to give more detailed information about the model.

B. I agree with you. As I remember the model uses permanent and temporary memory. It is applied in the robots recognizing objects while moving.

A. Thank you for recalling it. The subject is very interesting and is waiting for its future development and application. We'll discuss it later on. Now I am in a hurry. Good luck.

B. See you.

 

Task 2. Single out the key information of the texts and make up abstracts and summaries by using text compression rule, omitting excessive data (explanations, repetitions, synonyms, details). Use terms you have written out.

Text 2. Universal Serial Bus (USB)

 

Universal Serial Bus (USB) is an industry standard developed in the mid-1990s that defines the cables, connectors and communications protocols used in a bus for connection, communication and power supply between computers and electronic devices.

USB was designed to standardize the connection of computer peripherals (including keyboards, pointing devices, digital cameras, printers, portable media players, disk drives and network adapters) to personal computers, both to communicate and to supply electric power. It has become commonplace on other devices, such as smartphones, PDAs and video game consoles. USB has effectively replaced a variety of earlier interfaces, such as serial and parallel ports, as well as separate power chargers for portable devices.

The design architecture of USB is asymmetrical in its topology, consisting of a host, a multitude of downstream USB ports, and multiple peripheral devices connected in a tiered-star topology. Additional USB hubs may be included in the tiers, allowing branching into a tree structure with up to five tier levels. A USB host may implement multiple host controllers and each host controller may provide one or more USB ports. Up to 127 devices, including hub devices if they present, may be connected to a single host controller. USB devices are linked in series through hubs. One hub—built into the host controller—is the root hub.

A physical USB device may consist of several logical sub-devices that are referred to as device functions. A single device may provide several functions, for example, a webcam (video device function) with a built-in microphone (audio device function). This kind of device is called composite device. An alternative for this is compound device in which each logical device is assigned a distinctive address by the host and all logical devices are connected to a built-in hub to which the physical USB wire is connected.

USB device communication is based on pipes (logical channels). A pipe is a connection from the host controller to a logical entity, found on a device, and named an endpoint. Because pipes correspond 1-to-1 to endpoints, the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. A USB device can have up to 32 endpoints, though USB devices seldom have many endpoints. An endpoint is built into the USB device by the manufacturer and therefore exists permanently, while a pipe may be opened and closed.

There are two types of pipes: stream and message pipes. A message pipe is bi-directional and is used for control transfers. Message pipes are typically used for short, simple commands to the device, and a status response, used, for example, by the bus control pipe number 0. A stream pipe is a uni-directional pipe connected to a uni-directional endpoint that transfers data using an isochronous, interrupt, or bulk transfer:

• isochronous transfers: at some guaranteed data rate (often, but not necessarily, as fast as possible) but with possible data loss (e.g., realtime audio or video).
• interrupt transfers: devices that need guaranteed quick responses (bounded latency) (e.g., pointing devices and keyboards).
• bulk transfers: large sporadic transfers using all remaining available bandwidth, but with no guarantees on bandwidth or latency (e.g., file transfers).

Text 3. Adaptive Algorithms for Finite Impulse Response Filters

 

Adaptive filters generally consist of two distinct parts:

a filter, whose structure is designed to perform a desired pro­cessing function, and an adaptive algorithm for adjusting the parameters (coefficients) of that filter. The many possible combi­nations of filter structures and the adaptive laws /governing them/ lead to a sometimes bewildering variety of adaptive filters.

We focus on what is, perhaps, the simplest class of filter structure: linear filters with a finite impulse response (FIR). Note that the filter output is a linear combination of a finite number of past inputs. The filter is not recursive (i.e., conta­ins no feedback). This property leads to particularly simple adap­tive algorithms.

Having specified the filter structure it is next required to design an adaptive algorithm for adjusting its coefficients. We are to consider adaptive laws whose objective is to minimize the energy of the filter output (i.e., the output variance or the output sum of squares). The need to minimize this particular cost function arises in many applications involving least-squares es­timation, such as adaptive noise canceling, adaptive line enhan­cement, and adaptive spectral estimation.

We are to present two adaptive algorithms for FIR fillers: the recursive least-squares (RLS) algorithm and the Widrow-Hoff least-mean-squares (LMS) algorithm. The LMS algorithm has gained considerable popularity since the early 1960s. Its simplicity makes it attractive for many applications in which computational requirements need to be minimized. The RLS algorithm has been used extensively for system identification and time-series analysis. In spite of its potentially superior performance, its use in signal processing applications has been relatively limited, due to its higher computational requirements. In recent years there has been renewed interest in the RLS algorithm, especially in its "fast" (computationally efficient) versions. The RLS algorithm has been applied to adaptive channel equalization adaptive array processing and other problems.

The concept of adaptation in digital filtering has proven to be a powerful and versatile means of signal proces­sing in applications where precise a priori filter design is im­practical. For the most part, such signal processing applications have relied on the well-known adaptive finite impulse response (FIR) filter configuration. Yet, in practice, situations commonly arise wherein the nonrecursive nature of this adaptive filter results in a heavy computational load. Consequently, in recent years acti­ve research has attempted to extend the adaptive FIR filter into the more general feedback or infinite impulse response (IIR) con­figuration. The immediate reward lies in the substantial decrease in computation that a feedback filter can offer over an FIR filter. This computational improvement comes at certain costs, however. In particular, the presence of feedback makes filter stability an issue and can impact adversely on the algorithm's convergence time and the general numerical sensitivity of the filter. Even so, the largest obstacle to the wide use of adaptive IIR filters is the lack of robust and well-understood algorithms, for adjusting the required filter gains. The classes of algorithms to be currently under development are to be explored those based on minimum mean-square-error concepts, and another which has its roots in nonlinear stability theory. The basic derivation of each will be pre­sented and certain aspects of performance examined. Other key de­sign concerns, such as the fact that certain algorithms require the use of specific filter structures, will also be to be illumi­nated.

II.Attacks

Information hiding techniques still suffer from several limitations leaving them open to attack and robustness criteria vary between different techniques. Attacks can be broadly categorized although some attacks will fit into multiple categories.

 

Basic Attacks:

Basic attacks take advantage of limitations in the design of the embedding techniques. Simple spread spectrum techniques, for example, are able to survive amplitude distortion and noise addition but are vulnerable to timing errors. Synchronisation of the chip signal is required in order for the technique to work so adjusting the synchronisation can cause the embedded data to be lost.

 

It is possible to alter the length of a piece of audio without changing the pitch and this can also be an effective attack on audio files.

 

Robustness Attacks:

Robustness attacks attempt to diminish or remove the presence of a watermark. Although most techniques can survive a variety of transformations, compression, noise addition, etc they do not cope so easily with combinations of them or with random geometric distortions. If a series of minor distortions are applied the watermark can be lost while the image remains largely unchanged. What changes have been made will likely be acceptable to pirates who do not usually require high quality copies. Since robustness attacks involve the use of common manipulations, they need not always be malicious but could just be the result of normal usage by licensed users.

 

Protecting against these attacks can be done by anticipating which transformations pirates are likely to use. Embedding multiple copies of the mark using inverse transformations can increase the resistance to these attacks. However, trying to guess potential attacks is not ideal. The use of benchmarking for evaluating techniques could help to determine how robust the technique is. StirMark is a tool which applies minor geometric distortions, followed by a random frequency deviation based around the centre of the image and finally a transfer function to introduce error into all sample values similar to the effects of a scanner. StirMark can serve as a benchmark for image watermarking.

 

The echo hiding technique encodes zeros and ones by adding echo signals distinguished by different values for their delay and amplitude to an audio signal. Decoding can be done by detecting the initial delay using the auto-correlation of the cepstrum of the encoded signal but this technique can also be used as an attack.

 

If the echo can be detected then it can be removed by inverting the formula used to add it. The difficult part is detecting the echo without any knowledge of the original or the echo parameters. This problem is known as ‘blind echo cancellation’. Finding the echo can be done using a technique called cepstrum analysis.

 

Other attacks will attempt to identify the watermark and then remove it. This technique is particularly applicable if the marking process leaves clues that help the attacker gain information about the mark. For example an image with a low number of colours, such as a cartoon image, will have sharp peaks in the colour histogram. Some marking algorithms split these and the twin peaks attack takes advantage of this to identify the marks which can then be removed.

 

Presentation Attacks:

Presentation attacks modify the content of the file in order to prevent the detection of the watermark. The mosaic attack takes advantage of size requirements for embedding a watermark. In order for the marked file to be the same size as the original the file must have some minimum size to accommodate the mark. By splitting the marked file into small sections the mark detection can be confused. Many web browsers will draw images together with no visible split enabling the full image to be effectively restored while hiding the mark. If the minimum size for embedding the mark is small enough the mosaic attack is not practical. This attack can defeat web crawlers which download pictures from the Internet and check them for the presence of a client’s watermark.

 

Interpretation Attacks:

Interpretation attacks involve finding a situation in which the assertion of ownership is prevented. Robustness is usually used to refer to the ability of the mark to survive transformations and not resistance to an algorithmic attack. Therefore the definition of robustness may not be sufficient.

 

One interpretation attack takes advantage of mark detection being unable to tell which mark came first if multiple marks are found. If the owner publishes a document, d + w (where d is the original and w is the watermark) a pirate can add a second watermark w’ and claim that the document is his and that the original was d + w - w’. Though it is clear that at least one party has a counterfeit copy, it is not clear which one. This would seem to suggest the need to use other techniques to identify the original owner of a file.

 

Implementation Attacks:

As with other areas in computer security the implementation of a marking system can provide more opportunities for attack than the marking technique itself. If the mark detection software is vulnerable it may be possible for attackers to deceive it.

 

Digimarc, one of the most widely used picture marking schemes was attacked using a weakness in the implementation. Users register an ID and password with the marking service. A debugger was used to break into the software which checks these passwords and disable the checking. The attacker can change the ID and this will change the mark of already marked images. The debugger also allowed bypassing of checks to see if a mark already existed and therefore allowed marks to be overwritten.

 

There is a general attack on mark readers which explores an image on the boundary between no mark having been found and one being detected. An acceptable copy of the image can be iteratively generated which does not include the mark.

 

Clearly the software used to implement steganographic techniques needs to be secure and ideas from other areas of computer security can be used to ensure this.

 

Text 5. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)

I.Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is a type of automatic identification system. The purpose of an RFID system is to enable data to be transmitted by a portable device, called a tag, which is read by an RFID reader and processed according to the needs of a particular application. The data transmitted by the tag may provide identification or location information or specifics about the product tagged, such as price, color, date of purchase, etc. The use of RFID in tracking applications first appeared during the 1980s even though RFID was developed by allied forces in WWII so radar operators could distinguish between friendly and enemy aircraft. A basic RFID system consists of three components: an antenna or coil, a transceiver (with decoder), a transponder (RF tag) electronically programmed with unique information. When an RFID tag passes through the electromagnetic zone, it detects the reader’s activation signal. The reader decodes the data encoded in the tag’s integrated circuit (silicon chip) and the data is passed to the host computer for processing. Principal areas of application for RFID that can be currently identified include: transportation and logistics, manufacturing and processing, security.

The basic feature of an RFID system is the automatic identification of items. In its simplest form, such identification can be binary, e.g., paid or not paid, useful for alerting. Modern tags allow hundreds of bits to be used for such an ID. There are four RFID use cases – alerting, monitoring, identification, and authentication – each can be subverted by a specific type of attack.

1. Authentication and Counterfeiting. Today, RFID-based smart-cards are already in widespread use as payment and travel systems, access control systems and most recently as national and international identification documents. In all cases, it is imperative that the authenticity of the RFID tag cannot be compromised. The widespread availability of writable or even reprogrammable tags means that the use of RFID alone does not offer enough protection from determined counterfeiters.

2.Identification and Sniffing.The core RFID privacy problem is that of unauthorized tag readout: with the help of wireless communication, third parties can in principle read the tags of personal items from large distances, and without any indication that such a readout is taking place. For example, we use RFID in travel documents, where a passport might disclose the citizenship of its bearer and thus allow the hacker to track its bearer. Clearly, this act of sniffing out the data on an RFID tag can only be prevented if tags disclose their identity only to authorized readers, i.e., those that are under the control of the item owner or another authorized party.

3.Monitoring and Tracking.It is important to realize that privacy can also be violated without actually identifying individual items. Once a specific tag or a set of tags can be associated with a particular person, the mere presence of this tag in a particular reader field already implies a location disclosure. And thus tags must either frequently update their ID in a non-predictable manner, or remain completely silent upon inquiries from illegitimate readers.

4.Alerting and Denial of Service.In its simplest form, an RFID tag simply announces its presence, e.g., to an anti-theft gate in a bookstore. Sold items get their embedded RFID tag killed at checkout so that only unpaid items will be detected. Current industry protocols already require compliant tags to offer a Kill-command that completely silences the tag once issued. Tag silencing offers significant privacy gains, yet it directly conflicts with many commercial security concerns, such as theft. A personal jamming device that prevents readers from “coming through” might work quite well.

 

II.Let’s classify the attacks which are possible to apply to RFID tags. We’ll divide them into 5 categories:

1. Physical Layer attacks. The physical layer in RFID communications is comprised of the physical interface and the RFID devices. This layer includes attacks that permanently or temporarily disable RFID tags as well as relay attacks. They are such attacks as Kill-command, passive interference, active jamming and relay attacks.

2. Network - Transport Layer attacks. This layer includes all the attacks that are based on the way the RFID systems are communicating and the way that data are transferred between the entities of an RFID network (tags, readers). It includes attacks on tags (cloning, spoofing), reader attacks (impersonation, eavesdropping) and network protocol attacks.

3.Application Layer attacks. This layer includes all the attacks that target information related to applications and the binding between users and RFID tags. Such attacks employ unauthorized tag reading, modification of tag data and attacks in the application middleware such as buffer overflows and malicious code injections.

4. Strategic Layer attacks. This layer includes attacks that target organization and business applications, taking advantage the careless design of infrastructures and applications. More specifically this layer includes competitive espionage, social engineering, privacy and targeted security threats.

5. Multilayer Attacks. A lot of attacks that target RFID communication are not confined to just a single layer. In this category attacks affect several layers including the physical, the network-transport, the application and the strategic layer. In particular this layer includes covert channels, denial of service, traffic analysis, crypto and side channel attacks.

Now we discuss possible ways to counter these attacks. In order to safeguard RFID systems against low-tech attacks such as permanently or temporarily disabling tags, traditional countermeasures should be used, such as increased physical security with guards, locked doors and cameras. Unauthorized use of KILL commands could be prevented, for example, with effective password management. For the protection against relay attacks possible approaches could be the encryption of the RFID communication or the addition of a second form of authentication such as a password or biometric information. However, this requirement definitely eliminates the convenience and advantages of RFID communication. Through appropriate data collection, it is possible to detect cloned RFID tags. Alternatively, cloning attacks can be mitigated via challenge response authentication protocols. These should also support robust anti-brute force mechanisms. In order to defend against passive eavesdropping attacks encryption mechanisms could be used to encrypt the RFID communication. Spoofing and impersonation could be combated by using authentication protocols or a second form of authentication such as one-time passwords, PINs or biometrics. Network protocol attacks could be countered by hardening all components that support RFID communication, using secure operating systems, disabling insecure and unused network protocols and configuring the protocols used with the least possible privileges. In order to defend against unauthorized tag reading and tag modification on the Application Layer, controlling access to RFID tags should be our focus. One approach proposed was the use of aluminum-lined wallets to protect RFID payment cards and e-passports against unauthorized reading. However since the sniffing of confidential data can nevertheless be performed at the time of actual use, the approach does not seem to be very effective. Encryption techniques, authentication protocols or access control lists may provide an alternative solution. More specifically, approaches based on symmetric key encryption, public key encryption, hash functions, mutual authentication or even non-cryptographic solutions such as pseudonyms, have been proposed. Attacks in Strategic Layer Attacks layer can be defended by using any of the countermeasures employed against attacks included in the other layers. More precisely, for privacy and targeted security threats a broad range of technical solutions have been proposed, including killing or temporarily silencing tags, blocking access to unauthorized readers, relabeling or clipping tags, using pseudonyms, distance measurement and encryption techniques. Covert channels attacks are difficult to detect and defend against. The owners and users of RFID tags have no knowledge that their tags have been compromised and that they are used for a covert channel attack. Foiling these attacks is an open research issue. However, a possible mechanism to combat them should focus on reducing the availability of memory resources in an RFID tag. Denial of Service attacks and traffic analysis are severe security threats in all types of networks including wired. While theoretically these types of attacks can be countered the scarce resources of RFID tags make their defense problematic and remain an open research issue. Crypto attacks can be eliminated through the employment of strong cryptographic algorithms following open cryptographic standards and using a key with sufficient length.

Due to the increasingly wider deployment of RFID systems, their security is more critical than ever. In this paper, we tried to discover some structure within the universe of possible attacks that can affect such systems. By considering the point of attack, its systemic effects and countermeasures jointly, we can obtain a more coherent view of the threats and what must be done to counter them. In this paper, we classified attacks based on the layer that each is taking place and we discussed possible countermeasures that can be used to combat these attacks. We discriminated them to attacks deployed in the physical layer, the application layer, the strategic layer and multilayer attacks. Finally, we point out for which attacks further research is necessary in order to achieve adequate defense against them.

 

 

MODULE 2. PRESENTATIONS

The audience

The audience is the most important consideration in preparing a presentation.

Why the audience is so important? – A speaker needs to hold the audience’s attention – or the talk is a failure.

When you plan the presentation, think about the audience. Are they professionals or nonprofessionals? Providers or users? Your purpose and audience mix determine the tone and focus of the presentation.

 

Language Checklist

Greeting

Good morning / afternoon ladies and gentlemen.

(Ladies and) Gentlemen …

Subject

I plan to say a few words about …/ I’m going to talk about …./ The subject of my talk is …/ The theme of my presentation is …/ I’d like to give you an overview of

Structure

I’ve divided my talk into (three) parts./ My talk will be in (three) parts./ First …/ Second …/ Third …/ In the first part …/ Then in the second part …/ Finally …

Note: Use will, going to and the contracted form I’ll to describe structure.

Length

My talk will take about ten minutes./ The presentation will take about …

Language Checklist

Listing information

There are three things to consider. First …./ Second …. / Third ….

There are two kinds of …. The first is …. The second is ….

We can see four advantages and two disadvantages. First, advantages. One is …. Another is …. A third advantage is …. Finally ….

On the other hand, the two disadvantages. First …. Second ….

Linking ideas

That completes / concludes …./ That ‘s all (I want to say for now) on ….

Let’s move to (the next part which is) …./ So now we come to …./ Now I want to describe ….

Sequencing

There are (seven) different stages to the process./ First / then / next / after that …/ There are two steps involved./ The first step is …. The second step is …./ There are four stages to the project./ At the beginning, later, then, finally …./ I’ll describe the development of the idea.

First the background, then the present situation, and then the prospects for the future.

 

Task 1. Prepare part of an informal presentation on a topic of your own choice. It doesn’t have to concern your work or studies but should be a topic which interest you. Use listing, linking and sequencing where necessary.

 

Structure (III). The end

Summarizing and concluding

Questions and discussions

The speaker ends his talk with the words: “Any questions?” The silence is disaster. How can you avoid it?

Four ways to avoid the problem:

1. If the audience is interested, someone will have something to say. So, make a good presentation.

2. End the presentation with an instruction to the audience. Here are two examples: “Now we need to know more about the way you work. Tell me about your situation and what may interest you … ” or “Now tell me what are your impressions and what else do you need to know now?”

3. Single out an individual who is most likely to have a question to ask you or a comment to make.

4. Have a question prepared.

Handling questions is thought by many speakers to be the most difficult part of a presentation. Why do you think this is? How do you think difficulties can be minimized?

There are some recommendations:

- Be polite.

- Listen very carefully.

- Ask for repetition or clarification.

- Keep calm.

- Tell the truth (most of the time!).

- Don’t say anything you’ll regret later.

- Check understanding if necessary by paraphrasing.

- Agree partially before giving own opinion: “Yes, but …”

 

Ending the main body

Okay, that ends my talk./ That’s all I want to say for now.

Concluding

There are two conclusions / recommendations. / What we need is …/ I think we have to …/ I think we have seen that we should …

Handling questions

That’s a difficult question to answer in a few words./ It could be …/ In my experience …/ I would say …/ I don’t think I’m the right person to answer that. Perhaps (Mr. …) can help …/ I don’t have much experience in that field …

I ‘m afraid that’s outside the scope of my talk. If I were you I’d discuss that with …

I’ll have to come to that later, perhaps during the break since we’re running out of time.

Sorry, I’m not sure I’ve understood. Could you repeat?/ Are you asking if …?/ Do you mean …?/ I didn’t catch your question./ If I have understood you correctly, you mean …? Is that right?

Does that answer your question?/ Is that okay?

 

ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ

 

Данное учебное пособие содержит практические рекомендации по аннотированию, реферированию и подготовке презентаций по научной литературе на английском языке для студентов старших курсов по специальности «Информационные системы и телекоммуникации».

Целью пособия является развитие у студентов технических ВУЗов навыков извлечения основной информации из первоисточника оригинальной научной литературы, умения точно и кратко излагать содержание работы в письменной (посредством написания аннотации и реферата) и устной форме (посредством подготовки презентации).

Пособие содержит три основных раздела: аннотирование, реферирование, презентация.

Каждый раздел включает четкую структуру, требования, рекомендации, языковые шаблоны и примеры аннотирования, реферирования и подготовки презентаций.

Тщательная проработка этого материала позволяет овладеть навыками выполнения этих работ.

Разделы «Аннотирование» и «Реферирование» содержат примеры аннотаций и рефератов, научные статьи, охватывающие ряд приборостроительных специальностей, поэтому могут быть использованы студентами старших курсов смежных специальностей факультета ИУ.

 

Желаем удачи!

 

 

MODULE 1. SUMMARY AND ABSTRACT