The stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary. Literary-bookish words. Colloquial words in English. The problem of slang.

The system of the stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary and functional styles. Stylistically unmarked, or stylistically neutral words and stylistically marked, or stylistically colored words. Two main strata of stylistically marked words: formal or literary-bookish words and informal, or colloquial words

In the process of comunication the choice of words is determined by the character of a speech situation. Systems of ling-c expressive means: phonetical, grammatical & lexical – peculiar to specific spheres of communication are called functional styles & are studied in Stylistics.Different functional styles, alongside with the peculiarities on Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics, are characterized by the use of certain layers of the voc., specific for them, studied both in Stylistics & Lexicology, from different angles.

The use of words in certain functional styles is determined by the character of the stylistic component of m-ng in their semantic structure. Part of the words a speaker uses is independent of the sphere of communication. They may be used in any situation – lecture, poem, when speaking to a child. These words are called stylistically neutral or unmarked words. They are used in all functional styles.

Words, suitable only on certain definite occasions in specific spheres of communication, characteristic only of certain functional styles, are called stylistically marked or colored words. According to the character of the connotational stylistic component & the prevalent sphere of usage, stylistically colored fall into:

1) Formal or literary bookish;

2) Informal or conversational (colloquial).

The subdivision of the literary-bookish vocabulary into general literary-bookish words and functional literary-bookish words. General literary-bookish words as a heterogeneous layer including words of scientific prose, “officialese”, literary, refined words. Functional (special) literary-bookish words: terms, poetic words, neologisms, archaic words and historical words, foreign word and barbarisms

Literary bookish words may be divided into: General literary bookish words (which are not limited by spheres of com-n) & Functional or special literary bookish words.

1) General literary bookish words are known to all educated speakers, irrespective of their profession or occupation. They are typical of written sphere & are used in writing sphere & polished sphere (lectures, official speech, etc.) General literary bookish words are mostly morphologically complicated, borrowed, monosemantic, & rarely used. E.g. to commence (to begin); accommodations (rule); heterogeneous (various); commendation (praise).

GLBV includes several heterogeneous subdivisions of words:

Words of scientific prose are precise, dignified and have a dry matter-of-fact flavor. E.g. to comprise (to include), to compile (to collect), divergent (different).

Officialese are special words & expressions used in official documents, words of official language: in terms of, in virtue of, to inquire (to ask), to assist (to help). Here belong connectives, such as: whereby, hereafter; hereupon. Double conj-ns: furthermore, moreover. Group conj-ns: in consequence of; in as much as.

Literary-refined words are mostly polysyllabic words, they are fully assimilated phonetically, and some of them continue to sound singularly foreign. They also seem to retain a loftiness associated with the lofty contexts in which they have been used for centuries. E.g. solitude, delusion, illusive, felicity

Though, GLBW are associated mainly with printed page, educated people use them quite natural in every day speech. Their speech is certainly richer but at the same time excessive use of GLBW in conversational speech may lead to absurdities and produce a comic effect. Such words should be used with care.

2) Special literary bookish words include: terms, poetic words, archaic words, & neologisms, foreign words or barbarisms.

A term is a word or a word-group, specifically employed in a branch of knowledge, science, technique, trade or art, to convey a notion, peculiar to this branch.

Poetic words are those used in poetry & aimed at producing an elevated affect. Many poetic words are also archaic: wave-billow, brine-sea, steed-horse, cows-kine.

Neologisms are new words & word-combinations (built or borrowed) which serve as new names for new things & notions or for old things & notions, which are felt by the speakers as something new.

E.g. new words & phrases for new notions: condominium = a cooperative apartment house; EPA = environment protection agency; echocrisis = ecological crisis; intelsat = international telecommunications satellite.

As the word stock of the English language is in the process of constant development, new words appear in the language while some other words grow old & drop out of the language, they are called archaic. The process of disappearance of a word is gradual. When a word becomes rarely used, when it is gradually passing out of general use, we call it – obsolescent. The obsolescent elements, preserved in a style of official documents, are: hereby, therewith, hereinafter named. The words that have already gone out of use, but are still recognized by English speakers, are called obsolete: methinks, nay.

Historical words are those, denoting things, no longer in use; they perform a historical distinctive function: hoopskirt, cataphract, katapult.

Barbarisms or foreign words are borrowed ones, completely unassimilated in the English language, though known to every English speaker. Barbarisms usually have their native neutral synonyms. E.g. brochure = booklet; fiction = belle-letter

Words & expression of the formal layer of the Eng voc are used in written sphere, books, & magazines, radio & TV (in formal official talk). These types of com-n are usually reduced to monologues & often prepared in advance.

Colloquialisms as words of the minimal degree of stylistic degradation. Literary-colloquial and familiar colloquial words. Substandard colloquial vocabulary: vernacular, or low colloquial words, dialect words, or dialectics, vulgarisms, slang

The informal or conversational layer of the English vocabulary is represented by the groups of colloquialisms, slang, vulgarisms, vernacular, dialect words, and neologisms of the conversational character.

Colloquialisms are words & expressions used in informal everyday speech, among the members of one family, close relatives & friends; they are not used among people whose relations are only formal, official. E.g. dad, ma, kid, get out, etc.

Colloquial words are divided into: Literary colloquial words & Familiar colloquial words.

Literary colloquial words are informal words used by educated people, usually purposely, in the course of ordinary conversations or writing letters to intimate friends. E.g. chap, pal, bite, and snack.

Familiar colloquial words are more emotional, more free & careless than literary colloquial words. E.g. boneshaker – драндулет; eyeful – a pretty woman; a kick off – beginning; old star – старикан

The terms low-colloquial & vernacular are used to denote words & expressions used in illiterate popular speech of uneducated people. They are informal substandard words, outside literary usage, often characterized by a distorted morphological & phonetic structure. E.g. gal = girl; pard = partner, friend. Vernacular words are closely connected with local dialects.

Dialects are conversational, substandard words, generally confined in their use to a definite locality.

Vulgarisms or vulgar words & expressions are rude & even obscene words & expressions with a strong emotive coloring of coarseness & rudeness, which are not used in decent speech & in the presence of women & children. They form the stylistically lowest group, considered too offensive for polite usage. Vulgarisms include: curse or swear words, bad names or terms of abuse, coarse words, denoting parts of the human body and acts not spoken of in public.

Definitions of slang. General slang and special slang: jargonisms, professionalisms, argot or cant. Word-building in slang. Neologisms of the colloquial character

The term "slang" which is widely used in Eng lexicology & stylistics is not specified yet. It has rather an obscure etymology. Some linguists think that this word is an abbreviation of the words ‘soldier's language’. Others attribute the origin of the term to the 2nd form of the verb "to sling" – to speak freely, without formality (to throw, to cast)

The term ‘slang’ to a broad layer of substandard English voc. bordering on colloquialisms on the one hand and vulgar words on the other hand in the system of the stylistic differentiation of the Eng voc.

According to the sphere of usage slang is divided into general & special.

General includes words that are not specific for any social or professional group. According to Arnold ‘slang words and phrases are expressive, mostly ironical words serving to create fresh names for some things that are frequent topics’.

E.g. (1) head is called ‘attic, brain-pan, hat-peg, nut, upper story, dome’; (2) a pretty girl or woman – ‘babe, baby-doll, barbecue, chick’; (3) a friend – ‘bud, buddy-buddy, bugger’

Slang words are common words used in a transferred m-ng & the transference is based on metaphor or metonymy. E.g. (1) dome slang for ‘head’ is based on metaphor; (2) barbecue for ‘pretty girl’ is based on metonymy; also on hyperbole: (3) Killing (astonishing); on irony: (4) ‘clear as mud’

Slang words may have stylistically neutral synonyms. E.g. ‘attic’, ‘head’, ‘beans’

Some slang words have no neutral synonyms & should be described in Standard English.

Special slang includes the groups of social and professional jargons & argo or cant. Jargonisms are words and expressions created by certain social groups for the use within the particular circle. University students' slang in the USA dates very quickly and differs from one university to another. E.g., ‘a hard working student’ generally known as ‘a grind’ in students' slang in different universities is also called ’a tool, a squid, a superstrap, a throat’

Argo or cant is the jargon of the underworld, the voc. of criminals, thieves. The so-called rhyming slang, back slang & medial slang are characteristic of argot formations aimed at secrecy. In rhyming slang ‘ to beat feet ’ means ‘to hurry’. In back slang bad is changed into dap. In medial slang ‘a person ’ becomes ‘a nosper’

Professional slang are words & expressions used in oral, informal intercourse in a definite trade, profession or calling by people connected by common interests both at work and at home. E.g. piper – a specialist who decorates pastry with the use of a cream pipe.

WB in Slang. Slang is one of the most unstable layers of the English voc. It requires continuous innovation.

Slang words & phrases are mostly short-lived but some of them appear to be stable. The follow words of Standard Eng used to be slang: bus, mob, fun, snob, jazz. General slang comes mostly from jargon and professional words and expressions whose popularity has increased. Any cultural subgroup may develop its own jargon which can later become general slang. Affixation: doper - dope or narcotic addict. in composition slang favors some frequent roots, such as: -butcher, -chaser, -down(er), -driver, -eater, -factory, -fiend, -fighter, -guard, -house, -head, -daffy, -dippy, dizzy (syn for crazy), -eyed, -mad, etc, which may even acquire the status of semi-affixes. e.g: cofee- butcher (seller), jazz- fiend (jazz-lover), money-mad, girl-chaser. Clippings & abbreviation are very popular in slang. E.g. caf (cafeteria); def (definitely). A number of slang words are formed by means of reduplication: din-din "dinner". Some slang words are built by means of blending: mingy = mean + stingy. Literary- colloquial words should be taught and learned and used in the appropriate situation. While familiar-colloquial words, slang words, low colloquial, dialect words, to say nothing of vulgar words should be only understood but never used by a foreigner. They are recommended only as a part of the passive voc. of a student of Eng.