Synonyms and antonyms in English.

Synonyms and synonymic sets, the synonymic dominant. Criteria of synonymy. Definition of synonyms. Functions of synonyms in speech

Ever language has in its voc. a variety of words similar in meaning, but different in morphemic composition, phonemic shape & usage. The more developed the language is, the richer the diversity of such words is. These words are called S. English is very rich in S. There are about 8000 synonymic groups in Eng. A group of S. is called a synonymic set. E.g. famous, celebrated, renowned, illustrious may make a synonymic set.

Each synonymic set has a word, which expresses the most general idea and holds a commanding position over other words – it is called the synonymic dominant. E.g. in the series to leave – to depart – to quit – to retire – to clear out the word ‘ to leave’ is general and neutral and can stand for each of the other 4 terms being the synonymic dominant of this group.

S. are grouped according to their similarity in their m-ng and are contrasted within a group on a principle of dissimilation, e.g. weak, feeble, powerless. In traditional linguistics S. are defined:

1) On basis of the notional criterion; according to it S. are words of the same category of parts of speech conveying the same notion but differing either in components of m-ng or in stylistic characteristics – Vinogradov.

2) The definition of S. based on the semantic criterion is: “Lexical syn-ms are different words of the same part of speech which have some common denotational components in their semantic structure but differ either in some denotational components and/or in some connotational components and thus usually have different lexical colloqability” – Cherkasskaya.

3) In modern research of S., the criterion of interchangeability is sometimes applied. According to this, S. are defined as words, which are interchangeable at least in some context without any considerable alteration in denotational m-ng. The application of this criterion is limited due to the differences in the semantic components of meaning of S. leads to the differences in their colloqability. All the definitions of S. are open to criticism and further perfection. S. have 3 main functions:

1. The F of substitution in order to avoid repetition and monotony;

2. The F of précising in m-ng in order to reach a greater accuracy and avoid vagueness;

3. The expressive stylistic F, e.g. clean (free from dirt) – neat (clean and tidy) – trim (in good order, neat and spruce) – spruce (neat, trim and smart).

Types of synonyms: ideographic, stylistic, absolute. Sources of synonyms in English

According to the traditional classification of S. developed by Vinogradov, there are 3 types:

1. Idiographic S. He describes idiographic S. as words conveying the same notion but differing in m-ng. Idiographic S. refer to the same general concept but they differ sometimes in the denotational m-ng, e.g. a look (a conscious and direct in devour to see) – a glance (a look, which is quick and sudden) – a glimpse (a look implying only momentary sights). These S. differ in quickness of the action and the time of duration;

2. Stylistic S. are words of the same denotational m-ng used in diff-nt speech styles. They have the same denotational components but differ in stylistic components of their semantic structure, e.g. farter (neutral) – /sire (poetical) – parent (bookish) – Dad (coloq.);

3. Absolute S. in Eng are words of exactly the same m-ng, words identical in meanings, e.g. fricatives and spirants; fatherland and motherland. Absolute S. are very rare. it would seem unlikely ‘that 2 words with exactly the same m-ng would both survive in a lang-ge’.

Euphemisms

There words in every language which people try to avoid, because they are considered to be indecent, indelicate, too direct & impolite. They are not neceserraly rude words, but people when talking about some delicate things start describe it in a roundabout way using euphemisms.

Euphemism is a Greek word (EU means “well” and PHEMOS means “speaking” thus E. means speaking well). A E. is a substitution of a harsh, obscene or unpleasant word by a less offensive word, e.g. queer is a E. for mad; intoxicated is a E. for drunk; in one’s birthday suit = naked. E. are divided into 2 main groups according to the character of words they substitute:

1. Religious and superstitious taboos are words & set phrases which are avoided in speech for religious reasons or cause of superstition, e.g. God – goodness, gracious, gosh; Devil –, Dickens, Nicolas, old Nick; to die – to pass away, to go to one’s last home, to go to the way of all flash, to join the majority, to kick the bucket;

2. Social and moral taboos are words and idioms which are avoided in speech as not acceptable in the polite conversation, e.g. trousers – unmentionables; toilet – powder-room,, restroom, lady’s room, public comfort station, WC (Windsor Castle), public conveniences; pregnant – in an interesting/delicate condition; in a family way, with the baby coming; drunk – intoxicated, tipsy, under the influence, mellow, fresh, high, merry, flustered, overcome, full, to be drunk as a lord/owl, boiled, fried, tanked, tight, stiff, pickled.

Antonyms in English. Definition and classification of antonyms: 1) contradictory and contrary antonyms; 2) root and derivational antonyms

Words in a language may be grouped acc. to the contrasting ideas they represent. A.are defined as words of the same part of speech which are opposite in m-ng. E.g. big – small

So, Antonymy is oppositeness in m-ng. Words opposite in m-ng maybe characterized by different types of semantic contrast. Compare the adj.: kind & cruel which express completely opposed notions; kind – unkind which show no polarity of m-ng but simple negation, as unkind is not necessarily cruel.

Thus, A. may be described as 2 or more words of the same part of speech which have some common denotational components characterized by diff-nt types of semantic contrast of denotational m-ng and interchangeable at least in some contexts as they have the same gr. and lexical valency and colloqability. They differ only in their denotational m-ng but do not differ in their stylistical coloring & emotive charge.

Antonymic substitution never results in a change of stylistic coloring: “ There’s so much good in the worst of us & so much bad in the best of us”.

Not every word of a languagege may have an A. Many words of concrete denotation have no A.: blackboard, table.

Names of physical & mental qualities usually have A.: round-square, bad-good.

Abstract nouns have A.: love-hatred, cleverness-foolishness.

Verbs denoting physical & mental activity have A. too: to put on – to put off, to open – to close.

Antonymy is different in different parts of speech. Different lexico-semantic variants of a word have different A.: dry – wet, dry – interesting; dear – hateful, dear – cheap. There may be pairs of A.: normal – abnormal; forward – backward. We have antonymous synonymic groups: normal (abnormal) – ordinary (extraordinary) – usual (unusual) – regular (irregular) – natural (unnatural). A. are words of the same part of speech that have some common denotational components in their semantic structure but express contrasting notions.

According to the relationship b/w the notions expressed, A. are divided into

-contradictories (form a binary complimentary opposition which admits of no possibility b/w the members, e.g. dead – alive, single – married)

-contraries (form a gradual opposition which admits of possibility b/w them. They are the polar points of this gradual opposition: cold –(cool, warm)– hot; beautiful –(plain, good-looking)– ugly).

According to their morphological structure ant-ms may be divided into

-root (they have different roots: bad-good)

-derivational (differ in derivational elements: possible – impossible, to agree – to disagree) A. There are several WB affixes, prefixes and suffixes in the EL which help in the formation of A., they are: un (unusual), ir (irregular), im (impolite), in (inexperienced), il (illegal), dis (distrust), a (achromatic), ab (abnormal), under/over (overestimate), sub/super (superstructure), ful/less (artful), y/less (windy).