The Different Contexts of Child Psychology

When you think of development, what comes to mind? If you are like most people, you probably think about the internal factors that influence how a child grows, such as genetics and personal characteristics. However, development involves much more than the influences that arise from within an individual. Environmental factors such as social relationships and the culture in which we live also play an essential role.

Some of the major contexts that we need to consider in our analysis of child psychology include:

• The Social Context: Relationships with peers and adults have an effect on how children think, learn and develop. Families, schools and peer groups all make up an important part of the social context.
• The Cultural Context: The culture a child lives in contributes a set of values, customs, shared assumptions and ways of living that influence development throughout the lifespan. Culture may play a role in how children relate to their parents, the type of education they receive and the type of child care that is provided.
• The Socioeconomic Context: Social class can also play a major role in child development. Socioeconomic status (often abbreviated as SES), is based upon a number of different factors including how much education people have, how much money they earn, the job they hold and where they live. Children raised in households with a high socioeconomic status tend to have greater access to opportunity, while those from households with lower socioeconomic status may have less access to such things as health care, quality nutrition and education. Such factors can have a major impact on child psychology.

Remember, all three of these contexts are constantly interacting. While a child may have fewer opportunities due to a low socioeconomic status, enriching social relationships and strong cultural ties may help correct this imbalance.

Topics Within Child Psychology

Child psychology encompasses a wide range of topics, from the genetic influences on behavior to the social pressures on development. The following are just some of the major subjects that are essential to the study of child psychology:

• Genetics
• Prenatal Development
• Social Growth
• Personality Development
• Language
• Gender Roles
• Cognitive Development
• Sexual Development

Variant 13

Fill in articles where necessary

…...France is to …...north of …... Italy.

…...USA is …... largest country in ….. America.

Here it is cold and sometimes frosty, …... rivers and …... seas are covered with …... ice.

Do you play …... piano?

What do you in …... evening? - I often play …... chess with my grandfather

Fill in prepositions

Mary Petrova is a woman …... 32. She graduated …... the Institute …... Foreign Languages eight years ago. She's a lecturer now. She teaches English …... an Institute. She usually goes …... the Institute.….. eight o'clock …... the mor­ning and gets …... home …... three …... the afternoon. Her daughter Ann is a girl …... ten. She goes …... school.

3 Replace the infinitives in brackets

1. I always (to get) up at eight o'clock, but tomorrow I (to get) up a little later

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2. I (to go) to the Caucasus two years ago.

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3. I (to go) to the Caucasus in two years.

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4. Where you (to go)?

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5. Our grandmother (to cook) dinner from twelve till three yesterday.

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6. I (to play) football the whole evening tomorrow.

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7. I never (to be) to the Bahamas.

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8. I (to finish) the book by that time.

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Change from direct into indirect speech.

1. "Don't be late for dinner," said mother to us.

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2. I said to Boris: "Does your friend live in London?"

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3. I asked Mike: "What will you do after dinner?"

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4. "This man spoke to me on the road," said the woman.

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5. Mike said: "We have bought these books today."

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6. My brother said to me: "I am going to become a doctor."

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5 Translate into English

1 Ми вміємо писати ділові листи англійською мовою

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2 Не треба брати парасольку: дощ вже закінчився ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

6 Read and translate using dictionary:

Kid Fun: The ART of it All!

Say YES to Kid Creativity

What kid doesn't like to paint, draw, doodle, glue, mash, use glitter, and simply create a "one-of-a-kind masterpiece?" Creating kid art fosters creativity, originality, and can sometimes provide some amazing insight into a child's imagination and view of the world. But parents and other well-meaning adults sometimes stifle artistic expression by trying to apply too many rules and structure. This, in turn, can actually diminish a child's interest in art. Here are tips to bring out the artist in kids:

DO:

• ENCOURAGE self-expression and freedom to make choices. Provide your child with a few colors (whether it is paint, crayons, markers, etc.), and a blank canvas and see what wonders can be created.
• MAINTAIN an open mind about your child's creations. So what if you can't tell what it is. Ask yourself: Did my child have fun creating this? After all, that is what counts.
• ADD a fun mix of art objects that can make creations super fun. Depending in the youngsters age, bring on the glitter, sparkle pens, glue, feathers, rhinestones, buttons, pasta noodles, or other potential art objects.
• PROVIDE a space, environment and clothing that a child can get messy without fear of punishment. After all, the greatest masterpieces may not be created on simply an 8 1/2x11 sheet of copy paper. So what if their hands get washable paint on them? Kids clean up, after all.
• PRAISE your child for efforts. Display artwork proudly and encourage the child to describe the project in his terms.

DO NOT:

• ASK a child what heis creating or try to affix a label to artwork. If an adult says, "Awww. Are you drawing a picture of your cat?" and the reality is that he was drawing a robot, a kid may feel he's not a very good drawer.
• DIRECT color assignments or assist (kids call it interfering) in any way. The sky does not have to be blue, grass green, or clouds white. Let a youngster determine colors.
• SET EXPECTATIONS of what your child should produce. Does it really matter? Encourage them to do what they want. Parents can help prompt a reluctant child who says she doesn't know "what" to draw by suggesting some ideas, but after that, don't be pushy.
• PRESSURE a child to create art. Some well-meaning parents have created an "art time" for their youngsters with the belief that it will foster their love of art. For some kids, that could be the case. Others, however, will begin to view it as work or a chore. Know your child and his passion, and keep his interest and curiosity at an all-time.

 

Variant 14

Fill in articles where necessary

…... Irish Sea is between …... Great Britain and …... Ireland.

.…… Kazbek is …... highest peak of …... Caucasus

There is …... word in... text which I cannot understand.

There is …... big black piano in our living-room. It is at …... wall to …... left of door opposite …... sideboard

Fill in prepositions

She spends four hours ….... school every day. …... home she does her homework and helps …... her mother. Mary's son is a boy …... four. Her husband takes the boy …... a nursery-school every morning. Mary's parents do not live …... her. They live …... the country, a long way …... Moscow. …... the summer Mary takes her children …... the country and they stay …... their grandfather and grandmother.

Replace the infinitives in brackets

1. If you (to help) me I (to do) this work well

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2. Yesterday I (to come) to school at ten minutes to nine.

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3. She (not to read) tomorrow.

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4. She (not to read) now.

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5. At this time yesterday they (to sit) on the sofa and (to listen) to their grandmother.

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6. She (not to read) from 5 till 7 tomorrow.

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7. We (not to see) each other for ages.

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8. The expedition (to cover) hundreds of kilometres, but they still (to be) far from their destination.

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4 Change from direct into indirect speech.

7. "Don't sit up late," said the doctor to Mary.

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8. Oleg said to his sister: "Put the letter into an envelope and give it to Kate."

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9. The pupils said, “We study English.”

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10. My sister said to me: "Will you take me to the theatre with you tomorrow?"

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11. Mary said, "I was there with my parents."

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12. She asked me: "Why didn't you come here yesterday?"

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7 Ann said to us: "They haven't yet come."

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5 Translate into English

1 Всі студенти нашої групи вміють плавати

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3 Я не зможу тобі допомогти

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3 Не треба йти за покупками: я вчора ходив в магазин

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6 Read and translate using dictionary:

Parenting Styles

The Four Styles of Parenting

Developmental psychologists have long been interested in how parents impact child development. However, finding actual cause-and-effect links between specific actions of parents and later behavior of children is very difficult. Some children raised in dramatically different environments can later grow up to have remarkably similar personalities. Conversely, children who share a home and are raised in the same environment can grow up to have astonishingly different personalities than one another.

Despite these challenges, researchers have uncovered convincing links between parenting styles and the effects these styles have on children. During the early 1960s, psychologist Diana Baumrind conducted a study on more than 100 preschool-age children (Baumrind, 1967). Using naturalistic observation, parental interviews and other research methods, she identified four important dimensions of parenting:

• Disciplinary strategies
• Warmth and nurturance
• Communication styles
• Expectations of maturity and control

Based on these dimensions, Baumrind suggested that the majority of parents display one of three different parenting styles. Further research by also suggested the addition of a fourth parenting style (Maccoby & Martin, 1983).

The Four Parenting Styles

1. Authoritarian Parenting
   In this style of parenting, children are expected to follow the strict rules established by the parents. Failure to follow such rules usually results in punishment. Authoritarian parents fail to explain the reasoning behind these rules. If asked to explain, the parent might simply reply, "Because I said so." These parents have high demands, but are not responsive to their children. According to Baumrind, these parents "are obedience- and status-oriented, and expect their orders to be obeyed without explanation" (1991).
2. Authoritative Parenting
   Like authoritarian parents, those with an authoritative parenting style establish rules and guidelines that their children are expected to follow. However, this parenting style is much more democratic. Authoritative parents are responsive to their children and willing to listen to questions. When children fail to meet the expectations, these parents are more nurturing and forgiving rather than punishing. Baumrind suggests that these parents "monitor and impart clear standards for their children’s conduct. They are assertive, but not intrusive and restrictive. Their disciplinary methods are supportive, rather than punitive. They want their children to be assertive as well as socially responsible, and self-regulated as well as cooperative" (1991).
3. Permissive Parenting
   Permissive parents, sometimes referred to as indulgent parents, have very few demands to make of their children. These parents rarely discipline their children because they have relatively low expectations of maturity and self-control. According to Baumrind, permissive parents "are more responsive than they are demanding. They are nontraditional and lenient, do not require mature behavior, allow considerable self-regulation, and avoid confrontation" (1991). Permissive parents are generally nurturing and communicative with their children, often taking on the status of a friend more than that of a parent.
4. Uninvolved Parenting
   An uninvolved parenting style is characterized by few demands, low responsiveness and little communication. While these parents fulfill the child's basic needs, they are generally detached from their child's life. In extreme cases, these parents may even reject or neglect the needs of their children.