D. The following words and phrases appear in the passage you are going to hear. Explain their meaning in your own words. Choose five words or phrases and make up sentences using them.

●a modification ●sovereignty over natural resources ●to wield power ●to constrain from ●the plight of individuals ●to hamper ●a reprisal ●pervasiveness ●to pose a threat ●presumably ●a subsidiary ●hazardous ●to retain an image ●ambivalently ●to penetrate new markets ●to adhere to the standards ●to curb child labor ●a hindrance ●to amplify the timber demand ●to trigger deforestation ●a disparity

e. Now listen to five political observers analyzing the role intergovernmental organizations and multinational corporations play in promoting globalization.

 

Task 1

Fill in the table putting a tick to show whether the speakers approved or disapproved of their activities.

	speaker
approved of the activities
disapproved of the activities

Task 2

Now listen to the recording again. Decide which of the statements (A-I) matches what the speaker says. There is one extra statement which you do not need to use.

 

A	MNC are forced to think about social protection of their workers.
B	International organizations widen the gap between the rich and the poor.
C	International organizations deal not only with political and economic problems.	Speaker 1
D	The activities of multinationals are detrimental for the world’s future.	Speaker 2
E	Although the role of multinationals is controversial, they are active participants of international relations.	Speaker 3
F	International organizations do their best to meet peoples’ needs.	Speaker 4
G	The appearance of international organizations can be traced back deep in history.	Speaker 5
H	There are examples of different organizations which oppose the activities of multinational corporations.
I	The activities of multinational corporations are beneficial for developing countries they operate in.

F. Discuss in groups.

· Do intergovernmental organizations and multinational corporations think globally or are they motivated by their own interests?

· How can these actors of globalization be made fairer?

 

Reading

A. Read the information about the influence of international organizations on the domestic policy-making and comment on the role these organizations play in the formation of national policy. Do you believe nation-states should coordinate their policies in accordance with the view of international organizations? Are they partners or competitors in their effort to form and guide national policy?

 

The IMF contributes to promoting good governance in member countries through different channels. First, in its policy advice, the IMF has assisted its member countries in creating systems that limit the scope for ad hoc decision making, for rent seeking, and for undesirable preferential treatment of individuals or organizations. To this end, the IMF has encouraged, among other things, liberalization of the exchange, trade, and price systems, and the elimination of direct credit allocation. Second, IMF technical assistance has helped member countries in enhancing their capacity to design and implement economic policies, in building effective policymaking institutions, and in improving public sector accountability. Third, the IMF has promoted transparency in financial transactions in the government budget, central bank, and the public sector more generally, and has provided assistance to improve accounting, auditing, and statistical systems. In all these ways, the IMF has helped countries to improve governance, to limit the opportunity for corruption, and to increase the likelihood of exposing instances of poor governance. In addition, the IMF has addressed specific issues of poor governance, including corruption, when they have been judged to have a significant macroeconomic impact.

B. Study two points of view on the relations between governments and multinationals below. Compare them and decide which one you agree with more. Tell your partner.

Ø “We're supposed to have a government of, by and for the people. Instead we have a government of the Exxons, by the General Motors and for the DuPonts” (Nader)

Ø “The heart of the issue at stake is the policy regime that allows countries to capture most successfully the benefits of the activities of multinational companies. If, and only if, we get this right can we be confident in saying that such companies are our servants and not our masters” (Roger Kerr)

C. You will read an article about the relations between governments and multinational corporations. Before you read, look at the title of the article. What do you think the message of the article is?

D. Read the text. Six paragraphs have been removed from it. Choose the most suitable paragraph from the list (A-G) for each part (1-5) of the text. There is one extra paragraph which you do not need to use. There is an example at the beginning (0).

The Nation-State and the MNE

A Struggle for Power

Michael J. van Lierop

At the dawn of the 21^st century, the roles, influence and capacities of the nation-state are increasingly under scrutiny as the importance of the multinational enterprise gains ever greater prominence in world affairs. While views currently span the entire spectrum, from that of nation-state abolition to that of trade and financial de-liberalization, it is abundantly clear that after already a few decades of rising corporate presence at the international level the state is under considerable and mounting pressure. It is universally recognized that the multinational enterprise bears at its core an endemic need for not only MNE-friendly state policies and certain natural, human and capital resources, but also carries with it the value-laden preference for small government and liberal democracy. Within this context, clearly, the nation-state has been undermined by the MNE in almost every vital area as the unchallenged authority within the international system. In this regard, the nation-state has become subservient to the needs and free-market hegemony of the multinational enterprise.

C

Integral to the argument that MNEs pose a growing threat to the state, and in fact are acquiring a unique stature among international actors which pushes the MNE closer to the extreme opposite of the subservient nation-state, that of the masterless corporation or international overlord, is the very size, power and pervasiveness of the multinational firm.

Currently, there are over 2,000 large MNEs (operating in more than six countries) and over 37,000 smaller MNEs throughout the world, which collectively control some 270,000 subsidiaries, are worth tens of trillions of dollars, and employ over 35 million workers world-wide. General Motors, the world’s largest MNE, with a GCP (Gross Corporate Product) of more than $170 billion, ranks it twenty-second among all global economic entities, governments included. Indeed, multinational enterprises represent fifty-one of the world’s one-hundred largest economic entities, the remaining forty-nine being nation-states.

Part and parcel of the argument that the nation-state has become subservient to the MNE are the aspects in which governments aim to, or are succumbed to, serving the needs of multinational corporate investment. Indeed, Mathew Horsman and Andrew Marshall indicate the three golden rules states must adhere to in order to lure and maintain MNE interests, the cornerstone of these being the open economy, which is characterized by the open market, open regulation, and open capital markets. Accordingly, the TNC thus places a certain degree of limitation upon the state by virtue of its political needs, demanding security, stability, and efficiency aside from the resources it ultimately requires and utilizes.

An integral component to the MNE versus nation-state struggle is that of the inherent flexibility and mobility of the multinational firm. Put succinctly, the domestic enterprise relies on an internal market and resource base, which generally restricts its mobility within the confines of any given state, whereas the multinational enterprise relies on a global, transnational market and has at its disposal resources from its home and, quite possibly, other host countries. As a result, the MNE has the ability to move to benefit its bottom line just as much as it can move to undermine unfavourable or simply disliked host-country policy.

The commercial flexibility of the MNE as one of its key characteristics has been acknowledged unanimously for quite some time; concomitantly, this is what poses the greatest threat to nation-state supremacy. As Stephen H. Hymer noted in the early 1970s:

“Multinational corporations, because of their size and international connections, have a certain flexibility in escaping regulations imposed in one country. The nature and effectiveness of traditional policy instruments – monetary policy, fiscal policy, anti-trust policy, taxation policy, wages and income policy – change when important segments of the economy are foreign-owned.”

The authority and capabilities of national policy are drastically challenged by the manner in which the MNE chooses to invest and how it can readily alter capital inflows to the detriment of the host-country. That is assuming a state can lure the MNE in the first instance, but what of national policy once they have landed on home soil?

Still, the balance of power between MNEs and government remains precariously disequilibrium. The size and global reach of the biggest multinational enterprises have given rise to fears that decision-making powers are passing from governments to boardrooms. These powers of policy-creation remain strongly vested in government hands, but the extent to which MNE interests lobby government suggests that while the nation-state may still create the policy, it is the MNE spearheaded by the business lobby that ultimately shapes the policy. At the global level, MNE interests are represented before such integral international bodies as the WTO, EC, ISO, and the UN Commission on Sustainable Development. Given any perspective, it is evident that MNE interests can easily undermine national policy initiatives or plans, either through these aforementioned international organizations, various NGOs or through MNE-based direct pressuring.

A consequence of this erosion of sovereignty is, ultimately, a breakdown in national capacities to dictate terms of engagement in the commercial multinational theatre. But does a breakdown translate into subservience? Can one suggest that because state supremacy is under attack that its ability to act independently and make policy within its own domain to suit its own needs has been completely or sufficiently undermined to imply subservience? Arguably, yes. Without complete control and sovereignty over its own future, the nation-state has acquired a substantially weakened position vis-a-vis the multinational enterprise. The needs of the MNE supersede those of the domestic populace simply because the domestic electorate need the money, the jobs and the resources supplied by incoming MNE investment. By waving fat carrots at MNEs, nation-states now serve as go-between match-makers linking corporate interests from abroad with those from at home, acting as the elected middle-man for FDI and the intended target, that being domestic enterprise. One thing remains clear: the capacities of the nation-state have been challenged, eroded and ultimately undermined by the actions and interests of the MNE, the result being a diminution of state stature and power, positioning it as little more than a caterer, at best a matchmaker, for the needs of multinational corporations.

A. Arguably, the competition between states to offer the best possible environment for MNE investment indicates the ultimate extent to which this subservience can be illustrated. From tax breaks to low wages, subsidies to rent-free locations, submissive workers to sector deregulation, nation-state governments fall over themselves to offer the best incentives to FDI (foreign direct investment) and in so doing capitalize on one of the last domains which they can affect internally - the maximization of the state’s preparedness and openness to multinational enterprise dominance.

B. The TNC may increase or decrease employment based on shifting patterns of comparative advantage, making employment less stable and therefore undermining domestic policy by threatening to eliminate jobs.

C. Foreign-owned mega-corporations, be they willing to integrate locally or not, play a consistently expanding role in international politics and continue to challenge, with ever-increasing strength and persistence, the capacity of the nation-state to act as a sovereign power, that is, to make policy and take action according to its needs and desires regardless of external factors.

D. An examination of the magnitude of this issue and its implications for the nation-state will begin, firstly, with an introduction of the multinational enterprise, varying perspectives on its existence, and reasons for its omnipresence; secondly, through an overview of the ways in which states serve MNEs; thirdly, by analyzing the degrees of MNE flexibility and mobility that are central to the state-MNE relationship; fourthly, by examining national policies and their relation and impact on MNEs; fifthly, through a discussion of the state of sovereignty under the MNE-onslaught; and lastly, with a conclusion spanning the entire issue, offering a comprehensive evaluation pertaining to the subservient position states have acquired vis-à-vis the multinational enterprise.

E. Accordingly, the ability of MNEs to move in line with overall corporate agendas and remain flexible in their choice of location represents both a struggle and a shift in the balance of power from the nation-state to the MNE, and from the local human interest to the global corporate interest. The implications of this capacity for choice and ultimately the capacity to take action are immense insofar as the nation-state is left at the mercy of MNEs that may or may not enter, and may or may not leave. The capital, skills and technology a MNE can carry with it upon entry are, for many states, priceless commodities that domestically they cannot afford, train for, or develop.

F. At the same time, however, MNEs are restrained to some degree and with varying success by a number of agents; international laws, national laws, WTO trade rules, compliance with OECD, ICC or UN codes or practice, shareholder pressure, market competition, employee pressure, public interest groups, and law suits can all influence, affect and alter MNE decisions and practices within host or home countries. Nevertheless, MNEs continue to carry out their commercial activities with increasing impunity to actual nationally-oriented policy, again, due in large part to their desirability, and their overall flexibility and mobility. Undeniably, the MNE poses the greatest threat to the nation-state and its sovereignty, arguably as much so as any traditional territorial encroachment. Essentially, the MNE derives this strength from commercial power and the general lack of international corporate law.

G. According to sales alone, GM (US), Ford (US), Mitsui (Japan), Mitsubishi (Japan), Itochu (Japan), and Royal Dutch/Shell (Netherlands) occupy the top six positions, each with sales well-exceeding $125 billion in 1996. In relation, Turkey, Norway, South Africa, Poland, Portugal, Malaysia, among several-dozen others, each have GDPs that compare or fall below those of the aforementioned MNEs.

 

Vocabulary Practice