Перепишите предложения, подчеркните в каждом из них

глагол-сказуемое и определите его видовременную форму и залог. Переведите предложения на русский язык. Например: are paid – Present Simple Passive. В разделе (B) обратите внимание на особенности перевода пассивных конструкций.

А). 1. Governments usually require all individuals to conform to the laws they make. 2. The consumption of coal and steel has increased greatly in recent years. 3. The city authorities are providing many services for their citizens. 4. The government policy will depend upon the political and economic ideology adopted by the government. 5. Income is used to purchase goods and services.

B). 1. Great difficulties can be created by complete economic freedom of action. 2.The new machines were needed to increase the production output. 3. People who provide labour services are paid wages and salaries. 4. The price at which goods are sold depends on what the seller thinks he can get. 5. The science of economics is concerned with all our needs and wants. 6. The towns, inhabited mainly by craftsmen and traders, were subjected to the authority of the feudal lord. 7. He has already been told to report for duty at six. 8. The paintings will be exhibited till the end of the month. 9. A special edition for children must be written. 10. A competition problem is being studied.

Перепишите предложения, подчеркните Participle I, Participle II и установите функции каждого из них, т.е. укажите, будет ли оно определением, обстоятельством или составной частью глагола-сказуемого. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. Laws related to economic conditions are sometimes concerned with the workers' health, wages and pensions. 2. In all communities, of course, the limits are set upon the personal freedom of their citizens. 3. Being completely free, workers might stop working when they got their first pay, and come back only when they need more money. 4. Laws protecting the interests of the workers may be beneficial towards the employers at other times. 5. Production of goods intended for sale is called "production for the market".

Перепишите и письменно переведите следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из них модальный глагол или его эквивалент.

1. Economists say that a man is economically free if he can do what he wishes with his own property, time and energy. 2. The government policy may be biased towards employers and capital on the one hand, or workers and the problems of labour, on the other. 3. All individual citizens must conform to the laws made by the government. 4. Complete economic freedom can lead to economic anarchy. 5. People have to work to keep themselves and their families.

4. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их, учитывая различные значения слов it, that, since, one, for, as.

1. I find it necessary to help them. 2. It is Mr. Black whom I want to see. 3. One can get this book everywhere. 4. This room is larger than that one. 5. As I don't know Mr. Smith very well, will you introduce me to him? 6. It's three years since I did any skiing. 7. The astronauts have already been in the orbit for 2 days.

5. Перепишите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на различные значения глаголов to do, to be, to have. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. I want to have a bite right now. 2. You will have to go there alone. 3.

John has to do it. 4. He has finished his work. 5.1 have no shares of this company. 6. Our task is to buy all their equipment. 7. He was sent to London in 1996. 8. You are to make a report. 9. Don't do it! 10. Do you take a bus or a tram?

Перепишите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на функции инфинитива. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. Let's hurry so as not to be late. 2. Our task is to master English. 3. Illiteracy had to be done away with. 4. The questions to be discussed at tomorrow's meeting are important. 5. Who was the last to speak at yesterday's meeting?

Перепишите следующие предложения, принимая во внимание правила согласования времен и бессоюзное подчинение. Переведите предложения на русский язык. При переводе обратите внимание на тот факт, что в русском языке правила согласования времен отсутствуют.

1. Не said two days previously an enormous load of firewood had been dumped at his front gate and that since then he hadn't been able to get his car out. 2.1 asked him if he had enjoyed hunting and he said he hadn't. 3. My employer hoped I wouldn't be offended if he told me that, in his opinion, I would go better in some other kind of job. 4. She said sadly she was to leave.

8. Переведите следующий текст письменно, используя словарь.

If a person can do what he wishes with his own property, time and energy, then economists say that he is "economically free". In all communities, of course, the limits are imposed upon the personal freedom of their citizens and these limits are in some cases very complex but in other relatively simple. All individuals must conform to the laws made by the government.

Complete economic freedom of action can create great difficulties, because the freedoms of various individuals often conflict. If citizens were completely free some landowners might build factories in unsuitable places, while same factory-owners might make their employees work too long each day. If they were completely free, workers might stop working when they got their first pay, and come back only when they needed more money. Such economic anarchy could cause instability (unemployment, loss of production, etc.) in the whole economy of the country.

Laws related to economic conditions are sometimes concerned with contracts between employers and employees. Sometimes they are concerned with the workers' health, wages and pensions, and sometimes with the location of places of work.

Sometimes they protect the interests principally of the workers, while at other times they may be beneficial towards the employers. The government policy towards both employers and employees will depend upon the political and economic ideology adopted by the government, and may be biased towards employers and capital on the one hand, or workers and the problems of labour on the other.

 

Второй год обучения

КОНТРОЛЬНОЕ ЗАДАНИЕ № 3

 

LABOUR, CAPITAL AND THE MARKET

 

Для того, чтобы правильно выполнить Задание №4, необходимо усвоить следующие разделы грамматики английского языка по любым учебникам:

1. Основные сведения о сослагательном наклонении (Subjunctive Mood). Условные предложения.

2. Сложные формы инфинитива (Infinitive ) и причастия (Participle).

3. Обороты, равнозначные придаточным предложениям:

a) Объектный инфинитивный оборот (Complex Object)

b) Субъектный инфинитивный оборот (Complex Subject)

c) Самостоятельный (независимый) причастный оборот (Absolute Participial Construction).

4. Эмфатические конструкции.

5. Многозначность that (those), once, only, since.

После изучения всего указанного выше материала можно приступить к выполнению задания.

READING MATERIAL

 

Text 3 (A) Utility and Prices

Our basic needs are simple, but our additional individual wants are often very complex. Commodities of different kinds satisfy our wants in different ways. A banana, a bottle of medicine and a textbook satisfy very different wants. The banana cannot satisfy the same wants as the textbook.

This characteristic of satisfying a want is known in economics as its utility. Utility, however, should not be confused with usefulness. For example, a submarine may or may not be useful in time of peace, but it satisfies a want. Many nations want submarines. Economists say that utility determines "the relationship between a consumer and a commodity".

Utility varies between different people and between different nations. A vegetarian does not want meat, but may rate the utility of bananas very highly, while a meat-eater may prefer steak. A mountain-republic like Switzerland has little interest in submarines, while marine nations rate them highly.

Utility varies not only in relation to individual tastes and to geography,

but also in relation to time. In wartime, the utility of bombs is high, and the utility of pianos is low. Utility is therefore related to our decisions about priorities in production -particularly in a centrally planned economy. The production of pianos falls sharply in wartime.

The utility of a commodity is also related to the quantity, which is available to the consumer. If paper is freely available, people will not be so interested in buying too much of it. If there is an excess of paper, the relative demand for paper will go down. We can say that the utility of a commodity therefore decreases as the consumer's stock of that commodity increases. A special relationship exists between goods and services on the one hand, and a consumer and his money, on the other. The consumer's desire for a commodity tends to diminish as he buys more units of that commodity. Economists call this tendency the Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility. *

NOTES: *the Law of Diminishing Utility - закон убывающей предельной полезности

Text 3 (В) Supply and Demand

Economists talk about the Law of Supply, in which a rise in prices tends to increase supply, while a fall in prices tends to reduce it. If prices rise for a particular commodity, the rise will of course encourage producers to make more.

On the other hand, if prices fall either locally or throughout the world, producers will reduce production. This can result in serious difficulties for many producers, and may cause them to go out of business completely. Over-production of any commodity can also create difficulties, because it can lead to a glut on the market, which may cause prices to fall sharply.

Changes in prices lead to changes in the quantity of a particular commodity, which is made available to consumers. In such instances supply is said to be "elastic ", because it can be increased or decreased rapidly in response to market prices.

Elasticity of supply, as a response to changes in price, is related to demand. Economists define "demand" as a consumer's desire or want, together with his willingness to pay for what he wants. We can say that demand is indicated by our willingness to offer money for particular goods or services. Money has no value in itself, but serves as a means of exchange between commodities, which do have a value to us.

Usually we have to decide carefully how to spend our income. We do it according to our personal scale of preferences. In this scale of preferences essential commodities come first (food, clothing, shelter, medical expenses etc.), then the kind of luxuries, which help us to be comfortable (telephone, special furniture, insurance etc.), and finally those non-essentials, which give us personal pleasure (holidays, parties, visits to theatres or concerts, chocolates etc.).

Elasticity of demand is a measure of the change in the quantity of a good, in response to demand. The change in demand results from a change in price. Demand is inelastic when a good is regarded as a basic necessity, but particularly elastic for non-essential commodities. Accordingly, we buy basic necessities even if the prices rise steeply, but we buy other things only when they are relatively cheap.

Text 3 (С) The Price System

The utility of a commodity is related to the Laws of Supply and Demand.

When economists talk about a Law of Supply, they mean that a rise in prices tends to increase the supply of a commodity, while a fall in prices tends to reduce it.

When they talk about a Law of Demand, they mean that the fall in prices tends to increase the demand for a commodity, while a rise in prices tends to decrease the demand. In any economic situation, a consumer will decide to buy a commodity only in terms of its particular utility to him.

So changes in market prices lead to changes in the quantity of a particular commodity made available to consumers.

Equilibrium is a combination of price and quantity at which the quantity demanded and the quantity supplied are the same. Once equilibrium is achieved, there is no incentive for producers or consumers to move away from it. An equilibrium price changes only when demand or supply changes - i.e., when the determinants of demand or the determinants of supply change.

A price that is above the equilibrium price creates a surplus, because producers are willing and able to offer more for sale than buyers are willing and able to purchase.

A price that is below the equilibrium price leads to a shortage, because buyers are willing and able to purchase more than producers are willing and able to offer for sale.

When demand changes, price and quantity change in the same direction.

When supply changes, price and quantity change, but not in the same direction. When both demand and supply change, the direction of the change depends on the relative sizes of the changes in demand and supply.

Markets may not always be in equilibrium because price changes may be costly, buyers and sellers fix prices for long periods of time, or the government may regulate prices.

Text 3(E) Labour

Money is not only a means of exchange but is also a means of measuring the value of men's labour. In economic theory, "labour" is any work undertaken in return for a fixed payment. The work undertaken by a mother in caring for her children may be hard, but it receives no fixed payment. It is not therefore labour in the strict economic sense.

As a scientist, the economist is interested in measuring the services, which people render to each other. Although he is aware of the services, which people provide for no financial reward, he is not concerned with these services. He is interested essentially in services, which are measurable in terms of money payments for a fixed and/or regular nature. In economics, money is the standard by which the value of things is judged. This standard is an objective and scientific one.

Human labour produces both goods and services. The activities of a farm worker and a nurse are very different, but both are measurable in terms of payments received. Labour in this sense is not concerned with distinctions of social class, but simply with the payment of wages in return for work. The national labour force are those people who are available for work within the nation, i.e. the working population.

It should be noted that any person engaged in private business is self-employed and his activities are partly those of an employer and partly those of an employee. If however he employs an assistant, to whom he pays a fixed wage, his new employee provides labour in return for payment. The employer receives the surplus (large or small) from the whole business. This surplus is the reward of private enterprise and is known as profit.

Text 3(F) Capital

Labour is any work performed for an employer at a negotiated rate while profit is the surplus, which accumulates as a result of productive work. The employer obtains this surplus after he pays the necessary expense of his business and the wages of his employees. He may be required to share the surplus with others who have provided the capital with which he started his business.

Most businesses need capital in order to start productive work, and the capital pays for the accommodation, machinery and other items, which the business needs.

There is always an element of risk in providing capital and starting a business. The business may not be successful. The employees of the business do not bear this risk, but the employers and the providers of capital do bear it. If the business is successful, the risk has been justified and the invested capital earns part of the profits as a return on the investment.

The capital, which people provide to help new business, is an accumulation of previous surpluses on previous business activities. In this way the past is used to Finance the future. Such capital is accumulated by a deliberate policy of saving surpluses. This policy may be personal, or it may be collective. As such, it is common to many economic systems. A certain part of the profit is "ploughed back" into the system in order to create capital.

In general, capital can be defined as (1) a factor of production (for example, machinery or cash); (2) the assets possessed by a person, a company or a nation. Land, houses and shares in a business are capital. All railways, docks, airports and state funds of money are part of the nation's capital.