The query expression pattern

The Query expression pattern establishes a pattern of methods that types can implement to support query expressions. Because query expressions are translated to method invocations by means of a syntactic mapping, types have considerable flexibility in how they implement the query expression pattern. For example, the methods of the pattern can be implemented as instance methods or as extension methods because the two have the same invocation syntax, and the methods can request delegates or expression trees because anonymous functions are convertible to both.

The recommended shape of a generic type C<T> that supports the query expression pattern is shown below. A generic type is used in order to illustrate the proper relationships between parameter and result types, but it is possible to implement the pattern for non-generic types as well.

delegate R Func<T1,R>(T1 arg1);

delegate R Func<T1,T2,R>(T1 arg1, T2 arg2);

class C
{
public C<T> Cast<T>();
}

class C<T>: C
{
public C<T> Where(Func<T,bool> predicate);

public C<U> Select<U>(Func<T,U> selector);

public C<V> SelectMany<U,V>(Func<T,C<U>> selector,
Func<T,U,V> resultSelector);

public C<V> Join<U,K,V>(C<U> inner, Func<T,K> outerKeySelector,
Func<U,K> innerKeySelector, Func<T,U,V> resultSelector);

public C<V> GroupJoin<U,K,V>(C<U> inner, Func<T,K> outerKeySelector,
Func<U,K> innerKeySelector, Func<T,C<U>,V> resultSelector);

public O<T> OrderBy<K>(Func<T,K> keySelector);

public O<T> OrderByDescending<K>(Func<T,K> keySelector);

public C<G<K,T>> GroupBy<K>(Func<T,K> keySelector);

public C<G<K,E>> GroupBy<K,E>(Func<T,K> keySelector,
Func<T,E> elementSelector);
}

class O<T>: C<T>
{
public O<T> ThenBy<K>(Func<T,K> keySelector);

public O<T> ThenByDescending<K>(Func<T,K> keySelector);
}

class G<K,T>: C<T>
{
public K Key { get; }
}

The methods above use the generic delegate types Func<T1, R> and Func<T1, T2, R>, but they could equally well have used other delegate or expression tree types with the same relationships in parameter and result types.

Notice the recommended relationship between C<T> and O<T> which ensures that the ThenBy and ThenByDescending methods are available only on the result of an OrderBy or OrderByDescending. Also notice the recommended shape of the result of GroupBy—a sequence of sequences, where each inner sequence has an additional Key property.

The System.Linq namespace provides an implementation of the query operator pattern for any type that implements the System.Collections.Generic.IEnumerable<T> interface.

Assignment operators

The assignment operators assign a new value to a variable, a property, an event, or an indexer element.

assignment:
unary-expression assignment-operator expression

assignment-operator:
=
+=
-=
*=
/=
%=
&=
|=
^=
<<=
right-shift-assignment

The left operand of an assignment must be an expression classified as a variable, a property access, an indexer access, or an event access.

The = operator is called the simple assignment operator. It assigns the value of the right operand to the variable, property, or indexer element given by the left operand. The left operand of the simple assignment operator may not be an event access (except as described in §10.8.1). The simple assignment operator is described in §7.17.1.

The assignment operators other than the = operator are called the compound assignment operators. These operators perform the indicated operation on the two operands, and then assign the resulting value to the variable, property, or indexer element given by the left operand. The compound assignment operators are described in §7.17.2.

The += and -= operators with an event access expression as the left operand are called the event assignment operators.No other assignment operator is valid with an event access as the left operand. The event assignment operators are described in §7.17.3.

The assignment operators are right-associative, meaning that operations are grouped from right to left. For example, an expression of the form a = b = c is evaluated as a = (b = c).

Simple assignment

The = operator is called the simple assignment operator.

If the left operand of a simple assignment is of the form E.P or E[E_i] where E has the compile-time type dynamic, then the assignment is dynamically bound (§7.2.2). In this case the compile-time type of the assignment expression is dynamic, and the resolution described below will take place at run-time based on the run-time type of E.

In a simple assignment, the right operand must be an expression that is implicitly convertible to the type of the left operand. The operation assigns the value of the right operand to the variable, property, or indexer element given by the left operand.

The result of a simple assignment expression is the value assigned to the left operand. The result has the same type as the left operand and is always classified as a value.

If the left operand is a property or indexer access, the property or indexer must have a set accessor. If this is not the case, a binding-time error occurs.

The run-time processing of a simple assignment of the form x = y consists of the following steps:

· If x is classified as a variable:

o x is evaluated to produce the variable.

o y is evaluated and, if required, converted to the type of x through an implicit conversion (§6.1).

o If the variable given by x is an array element of a reference-type, a run-time check is performed to ensure that the value computed for y is compatible with the array instance of which x is an element. The check succeeds if y is null, or if an implicit reference conversion (§6.1.6) exists from the actual type of the instance referenced by y to the actual element type of the array instance containing x. Otherwise, a System.ArrayTypeMismatchException is thrown.

o The value resulting from the evaluation and conversion of y is stored into the location given by the evaluation of x.

· If x is classified as a property or indexer access:

o The instance expression (if x is not static) and the argument list (if x is an indexer access) associated with x are evaluated, and the results are used in the subsequent set accessor invocation.

o y is evaluated and, if required, converted to the type of x through an implicit conversion (§6.1).

o The set accessor of x is invoked with the value computed for y as its value argument.

The array co-variance rules (§12.5) permit a value of an array type A[] to be a reference to an instance of an array type B[], provided an implicit reference conversion exists from B to A. Because of these rules, assignment to an array element of a reference-type requires a run-time check to ensure that the value being assigned is compatible with the array instance. In the example

string[] sa = new string[10];
object[] oa = sa;

oa[0] = null; // Ok
oa[1] = "Hello"; // Ok
oa[2] = new ArrayList(); // ArrayTypeMismatchException

the last assignment causes a System.ArrayTypeMismatchException to be thrown because an instance of ArrayList cannot be stored in an element of a string[].

When a property or indexer declared in a struct-type is the target of an assignment, the instance expression associated with the property or indexer access must be classified as a variable. If the instance expression is classified as a value, a binding-time error occurs. Because of §7.6.4, the same rule also applies to fields.

Given the declarations:

struct Point
{
int x, y;

public Point(int x, int y) {
this.x = x;
this.y = y;
}

public int X {
get { return x; }
set { x = value; }
}

public int Y {
get { return y; }
set { y = value; }
}
}

struct Rectangle
{
Point a, b;

public Rectangle(Point a, Point b) {
this.a = a;
this.b = b;
}

public Point A {
get { return a; }
set { a = value; }
}

public Point B {
get { return b; }
set { b = value; }
}
}

in the example

Point p = new Point();
p.X = 100;
p.Y = 100;
Rectangle r = new Rectangle();
r.A = new Point(10, 10);
r.B = p;

the assignments to p.X, p.Y, r.A, and r.B are permitted because p and r are variables. However, in the example

Rectangle r = new Rectangle();
r.A.X = 10;
r.A.Y = 10;
r.B.X = 100;
r.B.Y = 100;

the assignments are all invalid, since r.A and r.B are not variables.

Compound assignment

If the left operand of a compound assignment is of the form E.P or E[E_i] where E has the compile-time type dynamic, then the assignment is dynamically bound (§7.2.2). In this case the compile-time type of the assignment expression is dynamic, and the resolution described below will take place at run-time based on the run-time type of E.

An operation of the form x op= y is processed by applying binary operator overload resolution (§7.3.4) as if the operation was written x op y. Then,

· If the return type of the selected operator is implicitly convertible to the type of x, the operation is evaluated as x = x op y, except that x is evaluated only once.

· Otherwise, if the selected operator is a predefined operator, if the return type of the selected operator is explicitly convertible to the type of x, and if y is implicitly convertible to the type of x or the operator is a shift operator, then the operation is evaluated as x = (T)(x op y), where T is the type of x, except that x is evaluated only once.

· Otherwise, the compound assignment is invalid, and a binding-time error occurs.

The term “evaluated only once” means that in the evaluation of x op y, the results of any constituent expressions of x are temporarily saved and then reused when performing the assignment to x. For example, in the assignment A()[B()] += C(), where A is a method returning int[], and B and C are methods returning int, the methods are invoked only once, in the order A, B, C.

When the left operand of a compound assignment is a property access or indexer access, the property or indexer must have both a get accessor and a set accessor. If this is not the case, a binding-time error occurs.

The second rule above permits x op= y to be evaluated as x = (T)(x op y) in certain contexts. The rule exists such that the predefined operators can be used as compound operators when the left operand is of type sbyte, byte, short, ushort, or char. Even when both arguments are of one of those types, the predefined operators produce a result of type int, as described in §7.3.6.2. Thus, without a cast it would not be possible to assign the result to the left operand.

The intuitive effect of the rule for predefined operators is simply that x op= y is permitted if both of x op y and x = y are permitted. In the example

byte b = 0;
char ch = '\0';
int i = 0;

b += 1; // Ok
b += 1000; // Error, b = 1000 not permitted
b += i; // Error, b = i not permitted
b += (byte)i; // Ok

ch += 1; // Error, ch = 1 not permitted
ch += (char)1; // Ok

the intuitive reason for each error is that a corresponding simple assignment would also have been an error.

This also means that compound assignment operations support lifted operations. In the example

int? i = 0;
i += 1; // Ok

the lifted operator +(int?,int?) is used.

Event assignment

If the left operand of a += or -= operator is classified as an event access, then the expression is evaluated as follows:

· The instance expression, if any, of the event access is evaluated.

· The right operand of the += or -= operator is evaluated, and, if required, converted to the type of the left operand through an implicit conversion (§6.1).

· An event accessor of the event is invoked, with argument list consisting of the right operand, after evaluation and, if necessary, conversion. If the operator was +=, the add accessor is invoked; if the operator was -=, the remove accessor is invoked.

An event assignment expression does not yield a value. Thus, an event assignment expression is valid only in the context of a statement-expression (§8.6).

Expression

An expression is either a non-assignment-expression or an assignment.

expression:
non-assignment-expression
assignment

non-assignment-expression:
conditional-expression
lambda-expression
query-expression

Constant expressions

A constant-expression is an expression that can be fully evaluated at compile-time.

constant-expression:
expression

A constant expression must be the null literal or a value with one of the following types: sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, char, float, double, decimal, bool, object, string, or any enumeration type. Only the following constructs are permitted in constant expressions:

· Literals (including the null literal).

· References to const members of class and struct types.

· References to members of enumeration types.

· References to const parameters or local variables

· Parenthesized sub-expressions, which are themselves constant expressions.

· Cast expressions, provided the target type is one of the types listed above.

· checked and unchecked expressions

· Default value expressions

· The predefined +, –,!, and ~ unary operators.

· The predefined +, –, *, /, %, <<, >>, &, |, ^, &&, ||, ==,!=, <, >, <=, and >= binary operators, provided each operand is of a type listed above.

· The?: conditional operator.

The following conversions are permitted in constant expressions:

· Identity conversions

· Numeric conversions

· Enumeration conversions

· Constant expression conversions

· Implicit and explicit reference conversions, provided that the source of the conversions is a constant expression that evaluates to the null value.

Other conversions including boxing, unboxing and implicit reference conversions of non-null values are not permitted in constant expressions. For example:

class C {
const object i = 5; // error: boxing conversion not permitted
const object str = “hello”; // error: implicit reference conversion
}

the initialization of iis an error because a boxing conversion is required. The initialization of str is an error because an implicit reference conversion from a non-null value is required.

Whenever an expression fulfills the requirements listed above, the expression is evaluated at compile-time. This is true even if the expression is a sub-expression of a larger expression that contains non-constant constructs.

The compile-time evaluation of constant expressions uses the same rules as run-time evaluation of non-constant expressions, except that where run-time evaluation would have thrown an exception, compile-time evaluation causes a compile-time error to occur.

Unless a constant expression is explicitly placed in an unchecked context, overflows that occur in integral-type arithmetic operations and conversions during the compile-time evaluation of the expression always cause compile-time errors (§7.19).

Constant expressions occur in the contexts listed below. In these contexts, a compile-time error occurs if an expression cannot be fully evaluated at compile-time.

· Constant declarations (§10.4).

· Enumeration member declarations (§14.3).

· Default arguments of formal parameter lists (§10.6.1)

· case labels of a switch statement (§8.7.2).

· goto case statements (§8.9.3).

· Dimension lengths in an array creation expression (§7.6.10.4) that includes an initializer.

· Attributes (§17).

An implicit constant expression conversion (§6.1.9) permits a constant expression of type int to be converted to sbyte, byte, short, ushort, uint, or ulong, provided the value of the constant expression is within the range of the destination type.

Boolean expressions

A boolean-expression is an expression that yields a result of type bool; either directly or through application of operator true in certain contexts as specified in the following.

boolean-expression:
expression

The controlling conditional expression of an if-statement (§8.7.1), while-statement (§8.8.1), do-statement (§8.8.2), or for-statement (§8.8.3) is a boolean-expression. The controlling conditional expression of the?: operator (§7.14) follows the same rules as a boolean-expression, but for reasons of operator precedence is classified as a conditional-or-expression.

A boolean-expression E is required to be able to produce a value of type bool, as follows:

· If E is implicitly convertible to bool then at runtime that implicit conversion is applied.

· Otherwise, unary operator overload resolution (§7.3.3) is used to find a unique best implementation of operator true on E, and that implementation is applied at runtime.

· If no such operator is found, a binding-time error occurs.

The DBBool struct type in §11.4.2 provides an example of a type that implements operator true and operator false.

Statements

C# provides a variety of statements. Most of these statements will be familiar to developers who have programmed in C and C++.

statement:
labeled-statement
declaration-statement
embedded-statement

embedded-statement:
block
empty-statement
expression-statement
selection-statement
iteration-statement
jump-statement
try-statement
checked-statement
unchecked-statement
lock-statement
using-statement
yield-statement

The embedded-statement nonterminal is used for statements that appear within other statements. The use of embedded-statement rather than statement excludes the use of declaration statements and labeled statements in these contexts. The example

void F(bool b) {
if (b)
int i = 44;
}

results in a compile-time error because an if statement requires an embedded-statement rather than a statement for its if branch. If this code were permitted, then the variable i would be declared, but it could never be used. Note, however, that by placing i’s declaration in a block, the example is valid.

End points and reachability

Every statement has an end point. In intuitive terms, the end point of a statement is the location that immediately follows the statement. The execution rules for composite statements (statements that contain embedded statements) specify the action that is taken when control reaches the end point of an embedded statement. For example, when control reaches the end point of a statement in a block, control is transferred to the next statement in the block.

If a statement can possibly be reached by execution, the statement is said to be reachable. Conversely, if there is no possibility that a statement will be executed, the statement is said to be unreachable.

In the example

void F() {
Console.WriteLine("reachable");
goto Label;
Console.WriteLine("unreachable");
Label:
Console.WriteLine("reachable");
}

the second invocation of Console.WriteLine is unreachable because there is no possibility that the statement will be executed.

A warning is reported if the compiler determines that a statement is unreachable. It is specifically not an error for a statement to be unreachable.

To determine whether a particular statement or end point is reachable, the compiler performs flow analysis according to the reachability rules defined for each statement. The flow analysis takes into account the values of constant expressions (§7.19) that control the behavior of statements, but the possible values of non-constant expressions are not considered. In other words, for purposes of control flow analysis, a non-constant expression of a given type is considered to have any possible value of that type.

In the example

void F() {
const int i = 1;
if (i == 2) Console.WriteLine("unreachable");
}

the boolean expression of the if statement is a constant expression because both operands of the == operator are constants. As the constant expression is evaluated at compile-time, producing the value false, the Console.WriteLine invocation is considered unreachable. However, if i is changed to be a local variable

void F() {
int i = 1;
if (i == 2) Console.WriteLine("reachable");
}

the Console.WriteLine invocation is considered reachable, even though, in reality, it will never be executed.

The block of a function member is always considered reachable. By successively evaluating the reachability rules of each statement in a block, the reachability of any given statement can be determined.

In the example

void F(int x) {
Console.WriteLine("start");
if (x < 0) Console.WriteLine("negative");
}

the reachability of the second Console.WriteLine is determined as follows:

· The first Console.WriteLine expression statement is reachable because the block of the F method is reachable.

· The end point of the first Console.WriteLine expression statement is reachable because that statement is reachable.

· The if statement is reachable because the end point of the first Console.WriteLine expression statement is reachable.

· The second Console.WriteLine expression statement is reachable because the boolean expression of the if statement does not have the constant value false.

There are two situations in which it is a compile-time error for the end point of a statement to be reachable:

· Because the switch statement does not permit a switch section to “fall through” to the next switch section, it is a compile-time error for the end point of the statement list of a switch section to be reachable. If this error occurs, it is typically an indication that a break statement is missing.

· It is a compile-time error for the end point of the block of a function member that computes a value to be reachable. If this error occurs, it typically is an indication that a return statement is missing.

Blocks

A block permits multiple statements to be written in contexts where a single statement is allowed.

block:
{ statement-list_opt }

A block consists of an optional statement-list (§8.2.1), enclosed in braces. If the statement list is omitted, the block is said to be empty.

A block may contain declaration statements (§8.5). The scope of a local variable or constant declared in a block is the block.

Within a block, the meaning of a name used in an expression context must always be the same (§7.6.2.1).

A block is executed as follows:

· If the block is empty, control is transferred to the end point of the block.

· If the block is not empty, control is transferred to the statement list. When and if control reaches the end point of the statement list, control is transferred to the end point of the block.

The statement list of a block is reachable if the block itself is reachable.

The end point of a block is reachable if the block is empty or if the end point of the statement list is reachable.

A block that contains one or more yield statements (§8.14) is called an iterator block. Iterator blocks are used to implement function members as iterators (§10.14). Some additional restrictions apply to iterator blocks:

· It is a compile-time error for a return statement to appear in an iterator block (but yield return statements are permitted).

· It is a compile-time error for an iterator block to contain an unsafe context (§18.1). An iterator block always defines a safe context, even when its declaration is nested in an unsafe context.

Statement lists

A statement list consists of one or more statements written in sequence. Statement lists occur in blocks (§8.2) and in switch-blocks (§8.7.2).

statement-list:
statement
statement-list statement

A statement list is executed by transferring control to the first statement. When and if control reaches the end point of a statement, control is transferred to the next statement. When and if control reaches the end point of the last statement, control is transferred to the end point of the statement list.

A statement in a statement list is reachable if at least one of the following is true:

· The statement is the first statement and the statement list itself is reachable.

· The end point of the preceding statement is reachable.

· The statement is a labeled statement and the label is referenced by a reachable goto statement.

The end point of a statement list is reachable if the end point of the last statement in the list is reachable.

The empty statement

An empty-statement does nothing.

empty-statement:
;

An empty statement is used when there are no operations to perform in a context where a statement is required.

Execution of an empty statement simply transfers control to the end point of the statement. Thus, the end point of an empty statement is reachable if the empty statement is reachable.

An empty statement can be used when writing a while statement with a null body:

bool ProcessMessage() {...}

void ProcessMessages() {
while (ProcessMessage())
;
}

Also, an empty statement can be used to declare a label just before the closing “}” of a block:

void F() {
...

if (done) goto exit;
...

exit:;
}

Labeled statements

A labeled-statement permits a statement to be prefixed by a label. Labeled statements are permitted in blocks, but are not permitted as embedded statements.

labeled-statement:
identifier: statement

A labeled statement declares a label with the name given by the identifier. The scope of a label is the whole block in which the label is declared, including any nested blocks. It is a compile-time error for two labels with the same name to have overlapping scopes.

A label can be referenced from goto statements (§8.9.3) within the scope of the label. This means that goto statements can transfer control within blocks and out of blocks, but never into blocks.

Labels have their own declaration space and do not interfere with other identifiers. The example

int F(int x) {
if (x >= 0) goto x;
x = -x;
x: return x;
}

is valid and uses the name x as both a parameter and a label.

Execution of a labeled statement corresponds exactly to execution of the statement following the label.

In addition to the reachability provided by normal flow of control, a labeled statement is reachable if the label is referenced by a reachable goto statement. (Exception: If a goto statement is inside a try that includes a finally block, and the labeled statement is outside the try, and the end point of the finally block is unreachable, then the labeled statement is not reachable from that goto statement.)

Declaration statements

A declaration-statement declares a local variable or constant. Declaration statements are permitted in blocks, but are not permitted as embedded statements.

declaration-statement:
local-variable-declaration;
local-constant-declaration;

Local variable declarations

A local-variable-declaration declares one or more local variables.

local-variable-declaration:
local-variable-type local-variable-declarators

local-variable-type:
type
var

local-variable-declarators:
local-variable-declarator
local-variable-declarators, local-variable-declarator

local-variable-declarator:
identifier
identifier = local-variable-initializer

local-variable-initializer:
expression
array-initializer

The local-variable-type of a local-variable-declaration either directly specifies the type of the variables introduced by the declaration, or indicates with the identifier var that the type should be inferred based on an initializer. The type is followed by a list of local-variable-declarators, each of which introduces a new variable. A local-variable-declarator consists of an identifier that names the variable, optionally followed by an “=” token and a local-variable-initializer that gives the initial value of the variable.

In the context of a local variable declaration, the identifier var acts as a contextual keyword (§2.4.3).When the local-variable-type is specified as var and no type named var is in scope, the declaration is an implicitly typed local variable declaration, whose type is inferred from the type of the associated initializer expression. Implicitly typed local variable declarations are subject to the following restrictions:

· The local-variable-declaration cannot include multiple local-variable-declarators.

· The local-variable-declarator must include a local-variable-initializer.

· The local-variable-initializer must be an expression.

· The initializer expression must have a compile-time type.

· The initializer expression cannot refer to the declared variable itself

The following are examples of incorrect implicitly typed local variable declarations:

var x; // Error, no initializer to infer type from
var y = {1, 2, 3}; // Error, array initializer not permitted
var z = null; // Error, null does not have a type
var u = x => x + 1; // Error, anonymous functions do not have a type
var v = v++; // Error, initializer cannot refer to variable itself

The value of a local variable is obtained in an expression using a simple-name (§7.6.2), and the value of a local variable is modified using an assignment (§7.17). A local variable must be definitely assigned (§5.3) at each location where its value is obtained.

The scope of a local variable declared in a local-variable-declaration is the block in which the declaration occurs. It is an error to refer to a local variable in a textual position that precedes the local-variable-declarator of the local variable. Within the scope of a local variable, it is a compile-time error to declare another local variable or constant with the same name.

A local variable declaration that declares multiple variables is equivalent to multiple declarations of single variables with the same type. Furthermore, a variable initializer in a local variable declaration corresponds exactly to an assignment statement that is inserted immediately after the declaration.

The example

void F() {
int x = 1, y, z = x * 2;
}

corresponds exactly to

void F() {
int x; x = 1;
int y;
int z; z = x * 2;
}

In an implicitly typed local variable declaration, the type of the local variable being declared is taken to be the same as the type of the expression used to initialize the variable. For example:

var i = 5;
var s = "Hello";
var d = 1.0;
var numbers = new int[] {1, 2, 3};
var orders = new Dictionary<int,Order>();

The implicitly typed local variable declarations above are precisely equivalent to the following explicitly typed declarations:

int i = 5;
string s = "Hello";
double d = 1.0;
int[] numbers = new int[] {1, 2, 3};
Dictionary<int,Order> orders = new Dictionary<int,Order>();

Local constant declarations

A local-constant-declaration declares one or more local constants.

local-constant-declaration:
const type constant-declarators

constant-declarators:
constant-declarator
constant-declarators, constant-declarator

constant-declarator:
identifier = constant-expression

The type of a local-constant-declaration specifies the type of the constants introduced by the declaration. The type is followed by a list of constant-declarators, each of which introduces a new constant. A constant-declarator consists of an identifier that names the constant, followed by an “=” token, followed by a constant-expression (§7.19) that gives the value of the constant.

The type and constant-expression of a local constant declaration must follow the same rules as those of a constant member declaration (§10.4).

The value of a local constant is obtained in an expression using a simple-name (§7.6.2).

The scope of a local constant is the block in which the declaration occurs. It is an error to refer to a local constant in a textual position that precedes its constant-declarator. Within the scope of a local constant, it is a compile-time error to declare another local variable or constant with the same name.

A local constant declaration that declares multiple constants is equivalent to multiple declarations of single constants with the same type.

Expression statements

An expression-statement evaluates a given expression. The value computed by the expression, if any, is discarded.

expression-statement:
statement-expression;

statement-expression:
invocation-expression
object-creation-expression
assignment
post-increment-expression
post-decrement-expression
pre-increment-expression
pre-decrement-expression
await-expression

Not all expressions are permitted as statements. In particular, expressions such as x + y and x == 1 that merely compute a value (which will be discarded), are not permitted as statements.

Execution of an expression-statement evaluates the contained expression and then transfers control to the end point of the expression-statement. The end point of an expression-statement is reachable if that expression-statement is reachable.

Selection statements

Selection statements select one of a number of possible statements for execution based on the value of some expression.

selection-statement:
if-statement
switch-statement

The if statement

The if statement selects a statement for execution based on the value of a boolean expression.

if-statement:
if (boolean-expression) embedded-statement
if (boolean-expression) embedded-statement else embedded-statement

An else part is associated with the lexically nearest preceding if that is allowed by the syntax. Thus, an if statement of the form

if (x) if (y) F(); else G();

is equivalent to

if (x) {
if (y) {
F();
}
else {
G();
}
}

An if statement is executed as follows:

· The boolean-expression (§7.20) is evaluated.

· If the boolean expression yields true, control is transferred to the first embedded statement. When and if control reaches the end point of that statement, control is transferred to the end point of the if statement.

· If the boolean expression yields false and if an else part is present, control is transferred to the second embedded statement. When and if control reaches the end point of that statement, control is transferred to the end point of the if statement.

· If the boolean expression yields false and if an else part is not present, control is transferred to the end point of the if statement.

The first embedded statement of an if statement is reachable if the if statement is reachable and the boolean expression does not have the constant value false.

The second embedded statement of an if statement, if present, is reachable if the if statement is reachable and the boolean expression does not have the constant value true.

The end point of an if statement is reachable if the end point of at least one of its embedded statements is reachable. In addition, the end point of an if statement with no else part is reachable if the if statement is reachable and the boolean expression does not have the constant value true.

The switch statement

The switch statement selects for execution a statement list having an associated switch label that corresponds to the value of the switch expression.

switch-statement:
switch (expression) switch-block

switch-block:
{ switch-sections_opt }

switch-sections:
switch-section
switch-sections switch-section

switch-section:
switch-labels statement-list

switch-labels:
switch-label
switch-labels switch-label

switch-label:
case constant-expression:
default:

A switch-statement consists of the keyword switch, followed by a parenthesized expression (called the switch expression), followed by a switch-block. The switch-block consists of zero or more switch-sections, enclosed in braces. Each switch-section consists of one or more switch-labels followed by a statement-list (§8.2.1).

The governing type of a switch statement is established by the switch expression.

· If the type of the switch expression is sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, bool, char, string, or an enum-type, or if it is the nullable type corresponding to one of these types, then that is the governing type of the switch statement.

· Otherwise, exactly one user-defined implicit conversion (§6.4) must exist from the type of the switch expression to one of the following possible governing types: sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, char, string, or, a nullable type corresponding to one of those types.

· Otherwise, if no such implicit conversion exists, or if more than one such implicit conversion exists, a compile-time error occurs.

The constant expression of each case label must denote a value that is implicitly convertible (§6.1) to the governing type of the switch statement. A compile-time error occurs if two or more case labels in the same switch statement specify the same constant value.

There can be at most one default label in a switch statement.

A switch statement is executed as follows:

· The switch expression is evaluated and converted to the governing type.

· If one of the constants specified in a case label in the same switch statement is equal to the value of the switch expression, control is transferred to the statement list following the matched case label.

· If none of the constants specified in case labels in the same switch statement is equal to the value of the switch expression, and if a default label is present, control is transferred to the statement list following the default label.

· If none of the constants specified in case labels in the same switch statement is equal to the value of the switch expression, and if no default label is present, control is transferred to the end point of the switch statement.

If the end point of the statement list of a switch section is reachable, a compile-time error occurs. This is known as the “no fall through” rule. The example

switch (i) {
case 0:
CaseZero();
break;
case 1:
CaseOne();
break;
default:
CaseOthers();
break;
}

is valid because no switch section has a reachable end point. Unlike C and C++, execution of a switch section is not permitted to “fall through” to the next switch section, and the example

switch (i) {
case 0:
CaseZero();
case 1:
CaseZeroOrOne();
default:
CaseAny();
}

results in a compile-time error. When execution of a switch section is to be followed by execution of another switch section, an explicit goto case or goto default statement must be used:

switch (i) {
case 0:
CaseZero();
goto case 1;
case 1:
CaseZeroOrOne();
goto default;
default:
CaseAny();
break;
}

Multiple labels are permitted in a switch-section. The example

switch (i) {
case 0:
CaseZero();
break;
case 1:
CaseOne();
break;
case 2:
default:
CaseTwo();
break;
}

is valid. The example does not violate the “no fall through” rule because the labels case 2: and default: are part of the same switch-section.

The “no fall through” rule prevents a common class of bugs that occur in C and C++ when break statements are accidentally omitted. In addition, because of this rule, the switch sections of a switch statement can be arbitrarily rearranged without affecting the behavior of the statement. For example, the sections of the switch statement above can be reversed without affecting the behavior of the statement:

switch (i) {
default:
CaseAny();
break;
case 1:
CaseZeroOrOne();
goto default;
case 0:
CaseZero();
goto case 1;
}

The statement list of a switch section typically ends in a break, goto case, or goto default statement, but any construct that renders the end point of the statement list unreachable is permitted. For example, a while statement controlled by the boolean expression true is known to never reach its end point. Likewise, a throw or return statement always transfers control elsewhere and never reaches its end point. Thus, the following example is valid:

switch (i) {
case 0:
while (true) F();
case 1:
throw new ArgumentException();
case 2:
return;
}

The governing type of a switch statement may be the type string. For example:

void DoCommand(string command) {
switch (command.ToLower()) {
case "run":
DoRun();
break;
case "save":
DoSave();
break;
case "quit":
DoQuit();
break;
default:
InvalidCommand(command);
break;
}
}

Like the string equality operators (§7.10.7), the switch statement is case sensitive and will execute a given switch section only if the switch expression string exactly matches a case label constant.

When the governing type of a switch statement is string, the value null is permitted as a case label constant.

The statement-lists of a switch-block may contain declaration statements (§8.5). The scope of a local variable or constant declared in a switch block is the switch block.

Within a switch block, the meaning of a name used in an expression context must always be the same (§7.6.2.1).

The statement list of a given switch section is reachable if the switch statement is reachable and at least one of the following is true:

· The switch expression is a non-constant value.

· The switch expression is a constant value that matches a case label in the switch section.

· The switch expression is a constant value that doesn’t match any case label, and the switch section contains the default label.

· A switch label of the switch section is referenced by a reachable goto case or goto default statement.

The end point of a switch statement is reachable if at least one of the following is true:

· The switch statement contains a reachable break statement that exits the switch statement.

· The switch statement is reachable, the switch expression is a non-constant value, and no default label is present.

· The switch statement is reachable, the switch expression is a constant value that doesn’t match any case label, and no default label is present.

Iteration statements

Iteration statements repeatedly execute an embedded statement.

iteration-statement:
while-statement
do-statement
for-statement
foreach-statement

The while statement

The while statement conditionally executes an embedded statement zero or more times.

while-statement:
while (boolean-expression) embedded-statement

A while statement is executed as follows:

· The boolean-expression (§7.20) is evaluated.

· If the boolean expression yields true, control is transferred to the embedded statement. When and if control reaches the end point of the embedded statement (possibly from execution of a continue statement), control is transferred to the beginning of the while statement.

· If the boolean expression yields false, control is transferred to the end point of the while statement.

Within the embedded statement of a while statement, a break statement (§8.9.1) may be used to transfer control to the end point of the while statement (thus ending iteration of the embedded statement), and a continue statement (§8.9.2) may be used to transfer control to the end point of the embedded statement (thus performing another iteration of the while statement).

The embedded statement of a while statement is reachable if the while statement is reachable and the boolean expression does not have the constant value false.

The end point of a while statement is reachable if at least one of the following is true:

· The while statement contains a reachable break statement that exits the while statement.

· The while statement is reachable and the boolean expression does not have the constant value true.

The do statement

The do statement conditionally executes an embedded statement one or more times.

do-statement:
do embedded-statement while (boolean-expression);

A do statement is executed as follows:

· Control is transferred to the embedded statement.

· When and if control reaches the end point of the embedded statement (possibly from execution of a continue statement), the boolean-expression (§7.20) is evaluated. If the boolean expression yields true, control is transferred to the beginning of the do statement. Otherwise, control is transferred to the end point of the do statement.

Within the embedded statement of a do statement, a break statement (§8.9.1) may be used to transfer control to the end point of the do statement (thus ending iteration of the embedded statement), and a continue statement (§8.9.2) may be used to transfer control to the end point of the embedded statement.

The embedded statement of a do statement is reachable if the do statement is reachable.

The end point of a do statement is reachable if at least one of the following is true:

· The do statement contains a reachable break statement that exits the do statement.

· The end point of the embedded statement is reachable and the boolean expression does not have the constant value true.

The for statement

The for statement evaluates a sequence of initialization expressions and then, while a condition is true, repeatedly executes an embedded statement and evaluates a sequence of iteration expressions.

for-statement:
for (for-initializer_opt; for-condition_opt; for-iterator_opt) embedded-statement

for-initializer:
local-variable-declaration
statement-expression-list

for-condition:
boolean-expression

for-iterator:
statement-expression-list

statement-expression-list:
statement-expression
statement-expression-list, statement-expression

The for-initializer, if present, consists of either a local-variable-declaration (§8.5.1) or a list of statement-expressions (§8.6) separated by commas. The scope of a local variable declared by a for-initializer starts at the local-variable-declarator for the variable and extends to the end of the embedded statement. The scope includes the for-condition and the for-iterator.

The for-condition, if present, must be a boolean-expression (§7.20).

The for-iterator, if present, consists of a list of statement-expressions (§8.6) separated by commas.

A for statement is executed as follows:

· If a for-initializer is present, the variable initializers or statement expressions are executed in the order they are written. This step is only performed once.

· If a for-condition is present, it is evaluated.

· If the for-condition is not present or if the evaluation yields true, control is transferred to the embedded statement. When and if control reaches the end point of the embedded statement (possibly from execution of a continue statement), the expressions of the for-iterator, if any, are evaluated in sequence, and then another iteration is performed, starting with evaluation of the for-condition in the step above.

· If the for-condition is present and the evaluation yields false, control is transferred to the end point of the for statement.

Within the embedded statement of a for statement, a break statement (§8.9.1) may be used to transfer control to the end point of the for statement (thus ending iteration of the embedded statement), and a continue statement (§8.9.2) may be used to transfer control to the end point of the embedded statement (thus executing the for-iterator and performing another iteration of the for statement, starting with the for-condition).

The embedded statement of a for statement is reachable if one of the following is true:

· The for statement is reachable and no for-condition is present.

· The for statement is reachable and a for-condition is present and does not have the constant value false.

The end point of a for statement is reachable if at least one of the following is true:

· The for statement contains a reachable break statement that exits the for statement.

· The for statement is reachable and a for-condition is present and does not have the constant value true.

The foreach statement

The foreach statement enumerates the elements of a collection, executing an embedded statement for each element of the collection.

foreach-statement:
foreach (local-variable-type identifier in expression) embedded-statement

The type and identifier of a foreach statement declare the iteration variable of the statement. If the var identifier is given as the local-variable-type, and no type named var is in scope, the iteration variable is said to be an implicitly typed iteration variable, and its type is taken to be the element type of the foreach statement, as specified below. The iteration variable corresponds to a read-only local variable with a scope that extends over the embedded statement. During execution of a foreach statement, the iteration variable represents the collection element for which an iteration is currently being performed. A compile-time error occurs if the embedded statement attempts to modify the iteration variable (via assignment or the ++ and ‑‑ operators) or pass the iteration variable as a ref or out parameter.

In the following, for brevity, IEnumerable, IEnumerator, IEnumerable<T> and IEnumerator<T> refer to the corresponding types in the namespaces System.Collections and System.Collections.Generic.

The compile-time processing of a foreach statement first determines the collection type, enumerator type and element type of the expression. This determination proceeds as follows:

· If the type X of expression is an array type then there is an implicit reference conversion from X to the IEnumerable interface (since System.Array implements this interface). The collection type is the IEnumerable interface, the enumerator type is the IEnumerator interface and the element type is the element type of the array type X.

· If the type X of expression is dynamic then there is an implicit conversion from expression to the IEnumerable interface (§6.1.8). The collection type is the IEnumerable interface and the enumerator type is the IEnumerator interface. If the var identifier is given as the local-variable-type then the element type is dynamic, otherwise it is object.

· Otherwise, determine whether the type X has an appropriate GetEnumerator method:

o Perform member lookup on the type X with identifier GetEnumerator and no type arguments. If the member lookup does not produce a match, or it produces an ambiguity, or produces a match that is not a method group, check for an enumerable interface as described below. It is recommended that a warning be issued if member lookup produces anything except a method group or no match.

o Perform overload resolution using the resulting method group and an empty argument list. If overload resolution results in no applicable methods, results in an ambiguity, or results in a single best method but that method is either static or not public, check for an enumerable interface as described below. It is recommended that a warning be issued if overload resolution produces anything except an unambiguous public instance method or no applicable methods.

o If the return type E of the GetEnumerator method is not a class, struct or interface type, an error is produced and no further steps are taken.

o Member lookup is performed on E with the identifier Current and no type arguments. If the member lookup produces no match, the result is an error, or the result is anything except a public instance property that permits reading, an error is produced and no further steps are taken.

o Member lookup is performed on E with the identifier MoveNext and no type arguments. If the member lookup produces no match, the result is an error, or the result is anything except a method group, an error is produced and no further steps are taken.

o Overload resolution is performed on the method group with an empty argument list. If overload resolution results in no applicable methods, results in an ambiguity, or results in a single best method but that method is either static or not public, or its return type is not bool, an error is produced and no further steps are taken.

o The collection type is X, the enumerator type is E, and the element type is the type of the Current property.

· Otherwise, check for an enumerable interface:

o If among all the types T_i for which there is an implicit conversion from X to IEnumerable<T_i>, there is a unique type T such that T is not dynamic and for all the other T_i there is an implicit conversion from IEnumerable<T> to IEnumerable<T_i>, then the collection type is the interface IEnumerable<T>, the enumerator type is the interface IEnumerator<T>, and the element type is T.

o Otherwise, if there is more than one such type T, then an error is produced and no further steps are taken.

o Otherwise, if there is an implicit conversion from X to the System.Collections.IEnumerable interface, then the collection type is this interface, the enumerator type is the interface System.Collections.IEnumerator, and the element type is object.

o Otherwise, an error is produced and no further steps are taken.

The above steps, if successful, unambiguously produce a collection type C, enumerator type E and element type T. A foreach statement of the form

foreach (V v in x) embedded-statement

is then expanded to:

{
E e = ((C)(x)).GetEnumerator();
try {
while (e.MoveNext()) {
V v = (V)(T)e.Current;
embedded-statement
}
}
finally {
… // Dispose e
}
}

The variable e is not visible to or accessible to the expression x or the embedded statement or any other source code of the program. The variable v is read-only in the embedded statement. If there is not an explicit conversion (§6.2) from T (the element type) to V (the local-variable-type in the foreach statement), an error is produced and no further steps are taken. If x has the value null, a System.NullReferenceException is thrown at run-time.

An implementation is permitted to implement a given foreach-statement differently, e.g. for performance reasons, as long as the behavior is consistent with the above expansion.

The placement of v inside the while loop is important for how it is captured by any anonymous function occurring in the embedded-statement.

For example:

int[] values = { 7, 9, 13 };
Action f = null;

foreach (var value in values)
{
if (f == null) f = () => Console.WriteLine("First value: " + value);
}

f();

If v was declared outside of the while loop, it would be shared among all iterations, and its value after the for loop would be the final value, 13, which is what the invocation of f would print. Instead, because each iteration has its own variable v, the one captured by f in the first iteration will continue to hold the value 7, which is what will be printed. (Note: earlier versions of C# declared v outside of the while loop.)

The body of the finally block is constructed according to the following steps:

· If there is an implicit conversion from E to the System.IDisposable interface, then

o If E is a non-nullable value type then the finally clause is expanded to the semantic equivalent of:

finally {
((System.IDisposable)e).Dispose();
}

o Otherwise the finally clause is expanded to the semantic equivalent of:

finally {
if (e!= null) ((System.IDisposable)e).Dispose();
}

except that if E is a value type, or a type parameter instantiated to a value type, then the cast of e to System.IDisposable will not cause boxing to occur.

· Otherwise, if E is a sealed type, the finally clause is expanded to an empty block:

finally {
}

· Otherwise, the finally clause is expanded to:

finally {
System.IDisposable d = e as System.IDisposable;
if (d!= null) d.Dispose();
}

The local variable d is not visible to or accessible to any user code. In particular, it does not conflict with any other variable whose scope includes the finally block.

The order in which foreach traverses the elements of an array, is as follows: For single-dimensional arrays elements are traversed in increasing index order, starting with index 0 and ending with index Length – 1. For multi-dimensional arrays, elements are traversed such that the indices of the rightmost dimension are increased first, then the next left dimension, and so on to the left.

The following example prints out each value in a two-dimensional array, in element order:

using System;

class Test
{
static void Main() {
double[,] values = {
{1.2, 2.3, 3.4, 4.5},
{5.6, 6.7, 7.8, 8.9}
};

foreach (double elementValue in values)
Console.Write("{0} ", elementValue);

Console.WriteLine();
}
}

The output produced is as follows:

1.2 2.3 3.4 4.5 5.6 6.7 7.8 8.9

In the example

int[] numbers = { 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 };
foreach (var n in numbers) Console.WriteLine(n);

the type of n is inferred to be int, the element type of numbers.

Jump statements

Jump statements unconditionally transfer control.

jump-statement:
break-statement
continue-statement
goto-statement
return-statement
throw-statement

The location to which a jump statement transfers control is called the target of the jump statement.

When a jump statement occurs within a block, and the target of that jump statement is outside that block, the jump statement is said to exit the block. While a jump statement may transfer control out of a block, it can never transfer control into a block.

Execution of jump statements is complicated by the presence of intervening try statements. In the absence of such try statements, a jump statement unconditionally transfers control from the jump statement to its target. In the presence of such intervening try statements, execution is more complex. If the jump statement exits one or more try blocks with associated finally blocks, control is initially transferred to the finally block of the innermost try statement. When and if control reaches the end point of a finally block, control is transferred to the finally block of the next enclosing try statement. This process is repeated until the finally blocks of all intervening try statements have been executed.

In the example

using System;

class Test
{
static void Main() {
while (true) {
try {
try {
Console.WriteLine("Before break");
break;
}
finally {
Console.WriteLine("Innermost finally block");
}
}
finally {
Console.WriteLine("Outermost finally block");
}
}
Console.WriteLine("After break");
}
}

the finally blocks associated with two try statements are executed before control is transferred to the target of the jump statement.

The output produced is as follows:

Before break
Innermost finally block
Outermost finally block
After break

The break statement

The break statement exits the nearest enclosing switch, while, do, for, or foreach statement.

break-statement:
break;

The target of a break statement is the end point of the nearest enclosing switch, while, do, for, or foreach statement. If a break statement is not enclosed by a switch, while, do, for, or foreach statement, a compile-time error occurs.

When multiple switch, while, do, for, or foreach statements are nested within each other, a break statement applies only to the innermost statement. To transfer control across multiple nesting levels, a goto statement (§8.9.3) must be used.

A break statement cannot exit a finally block (§8.10). When a break statement occurs within a finally block, the target of the break statement must be within the same finally block; otherwise, a compile-time error occurs.

A break statement is executed as follows:

· If the break statement exits one or more try blocks with associated finally blocks, control is initially transferred to the finally block of the innermost try statement. When and if control reaches the end point of a finally block, control is transferred to the finally block of the next enclosing try statement. This process is repeated until the finally blocks of all intervening try statements have been executed.

· Control is transferred to the target of the break statement.

Because a break statement unconditionally transfers cont