The sentence. The structural classification. The simple sentence.

The sentence. The structural classification. The simple sentence.

The sentence is a minimal text unit which may be used in communication to express a complete message.

Sentence: simple (one-member/ two member (complete/Elliptical)) and complex (complete/elliptical) compound).

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.Two-member sentence The basic pattern of a simple sentence is one subject-predicate unit.

a) unextended sentences:The child laughed. It is snowing.

b) sentences extended by obligatory elements: The child caught the ball.

c) sentences extended by optional elements: The child laughed merrily. My friend Mary is a very kind nurse. One-member sentences:A one-member sentence contains only one principal part which is neither the subject nor the predicate.

There are nominal and verbal one-member sentences:

a) nominal sentences are those in which the principal part is expressed by a noun or adjective. They state the existence of things. They are typical of descriptions. Silence., (unext) English spring flowers! (extended)

b) verbal one-member sentences are those in which the principal part is expressed by a non-finite form of the verb, either an infinitive or a gerund. These sentences are mostly used to describe different emotional perceptions of reality. To think of that! Living at the mercy of a woman! A one-member sentence is complete. No other element of it is implied or felt as missing or necessary.

Elliptical sentences: An elliptical two-member sentence is a sentence in which one or more word-forms in the subject and the predicate positions are omitted. These words can be omitted because they have only grammatical, structural relevance, they do not carry any new relevant information (Looks like rain. You sure?)

 

COMMUNICATIVE TYPES OF SENTENCES

According to their role in the process of communication sentences are divided into four types: declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory sentences.

DECLARATIVE SENTENCES or statements. A statement may be positive (affirmative) or negative: Grammatically, statements are characterized by the direct order of words.

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES The communicative function of the interrogative sentences consists in asking for information. Two main types of questions: general questions (yes-no), special. The two main types have a number of structural and communicative modifications.

IMPERATIVE SENTENCES express commands. Besides, imperative sentences may express prohibition, request, invitation, warning, etc.

EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES Exclamatory sentences express ideas emphatically.

 

The subject. Ways of expressing the subject.

A subject is a part of a sentence which denotes an agent, an instrument or other participants in an action. The subject is usually the topic of the sentence. The subject is characterized by the following formal features. It is basically formed by a noun phrase or a pronoun (also a numeral, a gerund, an infinitive, a predicative complex, a nominal clause, etc. Structurally subjects can be of four kinds: simple -expressed by a single word form (The rain is heavy), phrasal -expressed by a phrase(Two and three is five) complex -expressed by a predicative complex (a for –to-infinitive construction (It’s easy for you to talk so), a gerundial complex (Your knowing a thing …), clausal -expressed by a subject clause. (What I need is a piece of good advice).

MODALITY. OBLIQUE MOODS in simple sentences.

Mood is a form of verb which shows in what relation to reality the speaker places the action expressed by a predicate verb.

THE INDICATIVE MOOD presentes actions as real facts in the present past or future.

THE IMPERATIVE MOOD expresses a command or request to perform an action.

Oblique mood forms (Subjunctive II, Conditional and Suppositional)

SIMPLE SENTENCE 1. Subjunctive II (past simple, past perfect) is used in exclamatory sentences beginning with 'Oh, that...', If only...' (Oh, that the rain were over! (present) If only he had come! (past))

Such sentences express wish or regret and are characteristic of literary style. Subjunctive II is found in simple sentences with modal verbs. (Could you come again tomorrow? You might have opened the door for me.)

2. The Conditional Mood (would+non-perf, perf) is used to denote unreal actions in simple sentences (I wouldn't waste my time on rubbish in your place).

In simple sentences only Subjunctive I is used in a few set expressions (Success attend you! So be it)

3. The Suppositional (should+inf) Mood is used only in one type of interrogative sentences beginning with 'And what if...? (And what if he should come back?)

The subjects “It” and “There”.

The pronoun IT may represent a living being or a thing (notional subject), or it can be just a formal IT.

Notional IT has 2 meanings: 1. Personal IT (in Russian = он, она, оно). The elephant is intelligent. IT never forgets.

2. Demonstrative IT (It’s me, It’s Kate).

Formal IT: 1. Impersonal IT (It’s cold)

2. Introductory IT (It’s a pity that you’re leaving so early)

3. Emphatic IT (It was Mike, who broke the window)

 

EXISTENTIAL THERE Sentences with the existential there express the existence or coming into existence of a person or non-person denoted by the notional subject. Most typically, a sentence with the existential there has the following structure: There + be + indefinite NP (nominal phrase). There's a bear sitting in the corner. There tells us that someone or something that has not been mentioned before exists, happens, etc.

 

The category of number. Irregular plurals.

Number is the form of the noun which shows whether one or more than one object is meant. Some nouns in English have both the sing. and the pl. forms. These nouns are called variable nouns. Other nouns are used either only in the sing. or only in the pl. they are called invariable nouns. Variable nouns can be regular plurals and irregular plurals. Some nouns (12) ending in –f form their pl. changing –f into –v: wife-, shelf-, leaf-, loaf-, half-.life, self, elf

Others: beliefs, proofs, roofs, cliffs. Both: scarfs\scarves, handkerchief/ handkerchieves. Mutation: man-men, mouse-mice, goose-geese, louse-lice, foot-feet. en plural ox-oxen. children, brethren Some nouns have the same form in both sing. and pl. * nationality nouns: Japanese, * quantitative nouns: hundred, million, * nouns in –S: species, means, works, crossroads, * animal names: sheep, deer.

Loan words: foreign plurals are common in technical usage (formulas(general) — formulae (in maths)

Some typical number inflections of loan words: stimul us -stimuli, op us -op era, phenomen on -phenomen a, strat um -stra ta, appendi x -append ices, index-indices, basis-bases, formula-formulae

The noun. Semantic classification.

The noun is a notional word which refers to people, things, ideas, feelings, qualities.

Morphological composition

· Simple (cat, desk, floor)

· Derived: - abstract nouns( arrival, meeting, election)- concrete noun ( servant, student, dancer)

· Compound nouns ( airport, bluebird, living room, parents-in-law)

Semantic characteristics

Nouns can be divided into 2 groups – proper nouns and common nouns.

A proper noun is used for a particular person, place, thing which is, or is imagined to be, unique.

Common nouns are subdivided into count nouns and uncount nouns. Count nouns denote objects that can be counted: they may be either concrete (table, tree) or abstract (idea, question). Uncount nouns are names of objects that cannot be counted. They may be material (silver,milk) or abstract (love, friendship).

There are a number of nouns in Engl. which refer to a set of objects collected together. These nouns are called collective nouns. They include group nouns, nouns of multitude and mass nouns.

Group nouns refer to groups of individuals: army, crew, crowd, family, minority. G. nouns also include proper names, such as the name of a country denoting a national team(England) or the name of a business company. Nouns of multitude are used as plural but have no plural ending: people, police, clergy, gentry, cattle. Mass nouns fall into 2 groups: those which are always used in the sing. and those which are always used in the pl. The sing. Mass nouns denote the substance which is divisible into separate things: furniture consist of pieces of furniture, grass consists of separate blades of grass. Some more: clothing, food, homerwork, mail. The plural mass nouns are marked by the plural endings -s: archives, belongings, clothes, earnings, goods.

 

The Object.

The Object is a part of sentence which typically refers to the participants different from the subject.

Objects: direct (He wrote the article) indirect (I'll show you the garden) prepositional (You can rely on Tom)

Complement: subject (Bill is a policeman) object (I found the map helpful) predicate (The fare costs $150.)

THE DIRECT OBJECT is the single prepositional object of a monotransitive verb (I wrote a poem) or one of the two objects of a ditransitive verb that has no prepositional paraphrase (They sent me a telegram).

THE INDIRECT OBJECT is one of two objects of a ditransitive verb that has a prepositional paraphrase (They sent me a telegram. They sent a telegram to me). It become subject in a passive clause (I was sent a telegram).

COMPLEMENT

THE PREDICATE COMPLEMENT is the obligatory part of the clause which refers to the predicate.

 

ADverbials

1. From the POV of structure Adverbials may be optional (non-obligatory) or obligatory

OPTIONAL provide additional information; they are part of the structure of the sentence, but they are not assential to the structure (Sometimes the children played by the lake). OBLIGATORY when the sentence structure demands one or when their absence changes the meaning of the verb:

2) From point of view of their relation to the modified parts of the sentence, adverbials may be non-detached and detached DETACHED are more loosely related to the modified parts, they are never obligatory and separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

3) From the point of view of their function, adv-s can be classified as conjuncts, disjuncts and adjunctsAdjunct provides additional information and is a part of the structure of the sentence (Gwendolen did her work perfectly) Conjunct is an adv. whose function is to form a logical link between what is said in one sentence and what is said in the next. Disjunct is an adv. coming at the begining of the sentence and expressing the speaker's attitude towards the statement

Semantic classes: 1) of Place (where? where to? how far? where from?) 2) of Time * (when?how long?how often?) 3) of Manner, 4) of Cause(Reason) 5) of Purpose 6) of Result 7) of Condition 8) of Concession 9) of Attendant Circumstances and Subsequent Events (10) of Comparison

 

 

SUBJUNCTIVE II

Subjunctive II has two basic forms: non-perfect Subjunctive II is homonymous with the Past Indicative: spoke, went, built, wrote, did, etc. The only exception is the verb to be whose Subjunctive II form is were for all persons. Perfect Subjunctive II is homonymous with the Past Perfect Indicative for all verbs: had been, had done, had gone, had written, etc.

Meaning: Subjunctive II represents an action as contrary to reality: Use: Subjunctive II is used in simple sentences and in certain subordinate clauses of a complex sentence.

COMPLEX SENTENCE Subjunctive II us used in nominal and adverbial clauses.

NOMINAL CLAUSES 1.In attributive clauses after the expressions It is time, It is high time, It is about time: It's time I made up my mind. In attributive clauses only non-perfect Subjunctive II is used. 2.In predicative clauses introduced by the conjunctions as if, as though. The predicative clauses with Subjunctive II immediately follow the link verbs be, seem, look, feel, sound:

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES Subjunctive II is used: 1.In adverbial clauses of comparison or manner introduced by the conjunctions as if, as though: His voice broke as if he were going to cry. (simultaneous action) He speaks as if he had never seen me before, (prior action) 2.In adverbial clauses of unreal condition or concession (after the conjunction even if, even though). The principal clause contains a form of the Conditional Mood: I shouldn't take this line if I were you. (present action) Even if they had wanted me to stay I should have refused. (past action) Clauses of unreal condition may be introduced asyndetically. In this case inversion serves as a means of subordination: Were it all true, it would still not excuse their actions. Had she not worn an apron, I would not have known how to address her. Such sentences are characteristic of literary style.

 

 

THE CONDITIONAL MOOD

The Conditional Mood is an analytical form built up by means of the auxiliary verb should (for the 1st person) orwould (for the other persons) and the infinitive. The non-perfect Conditional Mood employs the indefinite or continuous infinitive: should do, would be going; the perfect Conditional Mood is formed with the help of the perfect or perfect continuous infinitive: should have done, would have been reading.

Meaning: The Conditional Mood, like Subjunctive II, represents an action as contradicting reality. The difference between the two moods is in their form and in their usage.Use: The Conditional Mood is used in simple sentences and in the principal clause of a complex sentence.

COMPLEX SENTENCE The Conditional Mood is used in the principal clauses of the complex sentences with the subordinate clauses of unreal condition or unreal concession (where Subjunctive II is used). The choice of actual forms depends on the time reference of the actions. 1. If the unreal actions in both the principal and the subordinate clause relate to the present or future, the non-perfect forms of respectively the Conditional Mood and Subjunctive II are used: I should never forgive myself if I profited by his generosity. 2. If both the actions contradicting reality relate to the past, the perfect Conditional is used in the principal clause and perfect Subjunctive II in the subordinate one: I'd have gone this morning, if I'd been able to get away. 3. The actions in the principal and subordinate clauses may have different time reference. Sentences of this kind are said to have split condition. The unreal condition may refer to the past (perfect Subjunctive II) and the unreal consequence to the present (non-perfect Conditional): The unreal condition may refer to no particular time (non-perfect Subjunctive II) and the unreal consequence may refer to the past (perfect Conditional): The modal verbs can, will, may are freely used in Subjunctive II to express unreal actions both in principal and subordinate clauses of unreal condition/concession: If the facts leaked out, the effect might very well be disastrous.

 

38. SUBJUNCTIVE I & THE SUPPOSITIONAL MOOD

These two moods will be treated together because they have the same meaning and are practically interchangeable in use. They differ in form as well as stylistically.

Forms: Subjunctive I is homonymous with the plain verb stem: be, do, have, go, write, etc. The negative form of Subjunctive I is not be, not do, not have. The Suppositional Mood is an analytical form built up with the help of the auxiliary verb should for all persons plus the infinitive. The non-perfect Suppositional Mood: should be, should do, should write. The perfect Suppositional Mood: should have been, should have done, should have written. Meaning: Both Subjunctive I and the Suppositional Mood express problematic actions, not necessarily contradicting reality. These actions are presented as necessity, order, suggestion, supposition, desire, request, etc.

COMPLEX SENTENCE Subjunctive I and the Suppositional Mood are used in nominal (subject, object, predicative), attributive appositive and some adverbial subordinate clauses.

NOMINAL AND ATTRIBUTIVE APPOSITIVE CLAUSES 1. Both Subjunctive I and the Suppositional Mood (non-perfect) can be used in subject, object, predicative and attributive appositive clauses if in the principal clause a modal meaning is expressed. 2. Only the Suppositional Mood (both non-perfect and perfect) is used in nominal and attributive appositive clauses if in the principal clause a personal reaction to events is expressed (for instance, with words like amazing, interesting, shocked, sorry, normal, natural, it's a shame, etc.)

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 1. In adverbial clauses of purpose introduced by the conjunctions so that the non-perfect Suppositional Mood is used or, rarely, Subjunctive I: Mary lowered her eyes so that he should not see the faint dream of amusement in them. 2. In adverbial clauses of concession introduced by though, although, whatever, whoever, whenever, wherever, etc., the non-perfect Suppositional Mood or Subjunctive I may be used with reference to the present or future: Though he should make every effort he cannot succeed.

 

The sentence. The structural classification. The simple sentence.

The sentence is a minimal text unit which may be used in communication to express a complete message.

Sentence: simple (one-member/ two member (complete/Elliptical)) and complex (complete/elliptical) compound).

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.Two-member sentence The basic pattern of a simple sentence is one subject-predicate unit.

a) unextended sentences:The child laughed. It is snowing.

b) sentences extended by obligatory elements: The child caught the ball.

c) sentences extended by optional elements: The child laughed merrily. My friend Mary is a very kind nurse. One-member sentences:A one-member sentence contains only one principal part which is neither the subject nor the predicate.

There are nominal and verbal one-member sentences:

a) nominal sentences are those in which the principal part is expressed by a noun or adjective. They state the existence of things. They are typical of descriptions. Silence., (unext) English spring flowers! (extended)

b) verbal one-member sentences are those in which the principal part is expressed by a non-finite form of the verb, either an infinitive or a gerund. These sentences are mostly used to describe different emotional perceptions of reality. To think of that! Living at the mercy of a woman! A one-member sentence is complete. No other element of it is implied or felt as missing or necessary.

Elliptical sentences: An elliptical two-member sentence is a sentence in which one or more word-forms in the subject and the predicate positions are omitted. These words can be omitted because they have only grammatical, structural relevance, they do not carry any new relevant information (Looks like rain. You sure?)