The functions of ordinal numerals in a sentence.

§ 9. Relative pronouns.

1. Relative pronouns (who, whose, which, that, as) not only point back to a noun or a pronoun mentioned before but also have conjunc­tive power. They introduce attributive clauses. The word they refer to is called their antecedent. It may be a noun or a pronoun.

Who is used in reference to human beings or animals.

Jolyon bit his lips; hewho had always hated rows almost wel­comed the thought of one now. (Galsworthy)

 ... in his voice was a strange note of fear that frightened the ani­mal,who had never known the man speak in such way before. (London)

Whose is mainly used in reference to human beings or animals but it may be applied to things.

Then there was the proud Rychie Korbes,whose father, Myn­heer van Korbes, was one of the leading men of Amsterdam. (Dodge)

Again he (Soames) looked at her (Irene), huddled like a bird that is shot and dying,whose poor breast you see panting as the air is taken from it,whose poor eyes look at you who have shot it, with a slow, soft, unseeing look... (Galsworthy)

... he (superintendent) wore a stiff standing-collarwhose upper edge almost reached his ears, andwhose sharp points curved forward abreast the corners of his mouth... (Twain)

Which is used in reference to things and animals.

Here was her own style — a bedwhich did not look like one and many mirrors. (Galsworthy)

They strove to steal a dog — the fattest,which was very thin — but I shoved my pistol in their faces and told them begone. (London)

That is mainly used in reference to animals and things. It may also be used in reference to human beings.

This... gave him much the same feeling a man has when a dog that he owns wriggles and looks at him. (Galsworthy) On one side was a low wallthat separated it from the street. (London)

In the factory quarter, doors were opening everywhere, and he was soon one of a multitudethat pressed onward through the dark. (London)

As is normally used with the demonstrative pronoun such. As may refer to living beings and things.

... perhaps the books were right and there were many suchas

she (Ruth) in the upper walks of life. (London)

His mother was a poor peasant woman, too poor even to think of

such a thingas buying skates for her little ones. (Dodge)

For nobody's ever heard me say as it wasn't lucky for my children

to have aunts and unclesas can live independent. (Eliot)

2. Relative pronouns can also refer to a clause (see ChapterXVII,The Complex Sentence, § 8).

Relative pronouns always perform some syntactical function in the clause they introduce.

Gemma, there's a man downstairswho wants to see you. (Voy- nich) (SUBJECT)

She flashed a look at himthat was more anger than appeal. (London) (SUBJECT)

... then discussion assumed that random volubilitywhich softens a decision already forced on one. (Galsworthy) (SUBJECT) I think I have taken nothingthat you or your people have given me. (Galsworthy) (OBJECT)

Families often think it due to themselves to turn their back on newcomers,whom they may not think quite enough for them. (Shaw) (OBJECT)

It pleased Denny to exert the full force of his irony upon the work which they were doing. (Cronin) (OBJECT)

§10. Conjunctive pronouns.

1. Conjunctive pronouns (who, what, whose, which) not only point back to some person or thing mentioned before but also have conjunctive Power, introducing subordinate clauses (subject clauses, object clauses, Predicative clauses).¹

¹ See Chapter XVII, The Complex Sentence.

What June had taken for personal interest was only the imper­sonal excitement of every Forsyte... (Galsworthy) (SUBJECT CLAUSE)

What you want, in fact, is a first-rate man for a fourth-rate fee, and that's exactlywhat you've got! (Galsworthy) (PREDICATIVE CLAUSE)

I don't want to hearwhat you've come for. (Galsworthy) (OBJECT CLAUSE)

2. In the clause they introduce they perform different functions, those of subject, predicative, attribute, object.

What had made her yield he could never make out; and from Mrs. Heron, a woman of some diplomatic talent, he learnt noth­ing. (Galsworthy) (SUBJECT)

Erik realized with a sinking sensation that Haviland didn't know who he was. (Wilson) (PREDICATIVE)

I've spent a lot of time in the chart-room now, and I'm on the edge of knowing my way about,what charts I want to refer to, what coasts I want to explore. (London) (ATTRIBUTE) What Savina could no longer do for him, he did himself, and brutally brushed aside all other interests except her. (Wilson) (OBJECT)

§11. Defining pronouns.

The defining pronouns are: all, each, every, everybody, everyone, everything, either; both, other; another.

1. All is a generalizing pronoun, it takes a group of things or people as a whole.

All may be used as subject, predicative, object, and attribute.

... whenall is said and done... (London) (SUBJECT)

He just loved me, that isall. (London) (PREDICATIVE)

And Martin forgotall about it. (London) (OBJECT)

... ifall the doors are closed... (London) (ATTRIBUTE)

13.Both points out two people, things or notions mentioned before.

"But there is more to be said," he continued, after a pause painful toboth. (London)

You can study French, or you can study German, or cut them both out and study Esperanto... (London)

The pronoun both may be used as subject, object, and attribute.

Both seemed to implore something to shelter them from reality. (Hardy) (SUBJECT)

The light, admitted by windows atboth ends, was unfortunately not Chinese. (Galsworthy) (ATTRIBUTE)

When preceded by a preposition both may be used as a prepositional indirect object.

He invariably paid the way forboth, and it was through him that Martin learned the refinement of food. (London)

3. Each, every; everybody, everyone, everything. Each and every refer to all the members of the group of people, things, or notions mentioned before and taken one by one. When used as subject, each etc. require a verb in the singular.

Each may be used as subject, object, and attribute.

The train coming in a minute later, the two brothers parted and entered their respective compartments.Each felt aggrieved that the other had not modified his habits to secure his society a little longer. (Galsworthy) (SUBJECT)

He paid a dollareach. (London) (OBJECT)

It (a blackbird) started singing as I looked out of the window, end­ingeach phrase abruptly as if out of breath, a curiously amateur effect. (Braine) (ATTRIBUTE)

When preceded by a preposition each may be used as a prepositional indirect object:

They began to deal swiftly with the cocoa tins, slipping a stick of dynamite ineach. (Cronin)

Every is used only as an attribute:

This is something more than genius. It is true,every line of it. (London)

Everybody, everyone refer to all the members of the group of people mentioned before or taken one by one.

The pronouns everybody; everyone havetwo cases: thecommon case and thegenitive case.

The common case may be used as subject and object.

You walked into the waiting-room, into a great buzz of conversa­tion, and there waseverybody; you knew almosteverybody.(Mansfield) (SUBJECT, OBJECT)

The genitive case of the pronouns everyone and everybody is used as an attribute.

... he almost forgot the nearly intolerable discomfort of his new clothes in the entirely intolerable discomfort of being set up as a target foreverybody's gaze andeverybody's laudations. (Twain)

When preceded by a preposition everyone and everybody may be used as a prepositional indirect object.

How know? And without knowing how give such pain toevery­one? (Galsworthy)

There is a tendency in Modern English to use they and their after the pronouns every, everybody and everyone.

Everyone thinksthey have the answer.

Every student has to hand intheir paper today.

In formal English, the tendency has been to use he and his in such cases.

Everything may be applied to things, animals and abstract notions. In the sentence it is used as subject, predicative, and object.

No one will see us. Pull down that veil andeverything will be all right. (London) (SUBJECT)

Of course, class iseverything, really. (Galsworthy) (PREDICA­TIVE)

He was not long in assuming that Brissenden kneweverything.(London) (OBJECT)

4. Either has two meanings: (a) each of the two, (b) one or the other.

The trail wasn't three feet wide on the crest, and oneitherside the ridge fell away in precipices hundreds of feet deep. (London)

Then he remembered the underwriters and the owners, the two masters a captain must serve,either of which could and would break him and whose interests were diametrically opposed. (London)

In the sentence either is usually used as attribute or part of the subject (see the above examples).

5. Other; another: Other denotes some object different from the one mentioned before.

Other hastwo numbers: singular — other; plural — others. It hastwo cases: the common case and the genitive case (other's, others').

He walked at theother's heels with a swing to his shoulders and his legs spread unwittingly... (London)

In the sentence it is used as subject, object, and attribute.

After tea theothers went off to bathe... (Mansfield)(SUB­JECT)

When he brought his suitcase down into the hall, Isabel left the others and went over to him. (Mansfield) (OBJECT) But the circumstance was sufficient to lead him to select Tess in preference to theother pretty milkmaids. (Hardy) (ATTRIBUTE)

When preceded by a preposition it may be used as a prepositional indirect object:

You are not fair to theothers. (Voynich)

Another has two meanings: (1) 'a different one', (2) 'an additional one'.

He has learnt sheep-farming atanother place, and he's now mastering dairy work. (Hardy)

Yes, thought Soames,another year of London and that sort of life, and she'll be spoiled. (Galsworthy)

Another may be used as subject, object, and attribute.

The lantern hanging at her wagon had gone out butanotherwas shining in her face much brighter than her own had been. (Hardy) (SUBJECT)

Often among the women he met, he would see now one, now another, looking at him, appraising him, selecting him. (London) (OBJECT)

Now I won't sayanother word. I am overwhelmed, crushed. (London) (ATTRIBUTE)

§12. Indefinite pronouns.

Indefinite pronouns point out some person or thing indefinitely. The indefinite pronouns are some, any, somebody, anybody, someone, anyone, something, anything, one.

The pronouns somebody, anybody, someone, anyone, ояе have two cases: the common case and the genitive case.

1. Some is chiefly used in affirmative sentences while any is used in negative and interrogative sentences and in conditional clauses.

We spread down some wide blankets. (O. Henry)

But his chief trouble was that he did not know any editors or writers. (London)

Do you see any sign of his appreciating beauty? (Galsworthy)

 If you have any new books, show them to me please.

When used with nouns of material some and any have the meaning of indefinite quantity.

Now run along and get some candy, and don't forget to give some to your brothers and sisters. (London)

Some, not any, is used in special and general questions expressing some request or proposal.

"Do you want some water?" "No, I don't want any water." (Maltz)

Some may have the meaning of 'certain' (некоторые) before a noun in the plural.

You have some queer customers. Do you like this life? (Galswor­thy)

Any may be used in affirmative sentences with the meaning of 'every' (любой).

Above a square-domed forehead he saw a mop of brown hair... nut-brown, with a wave to it and hints of curls that were a delight to any woman... (London)

Somebody, someone, something art chiefly used in affirmative sen- :ences.

He wanted someone young, you know a dark Spanish type... (Mansfield)

I want to say something. (Galsworthy)

Anybody, anyone, anything are used in negative and interrogative ;entences and in conditional clauses.

I don't want anything. (Voynich)

Is there anything between him and Annette? (Galsworthy)

If anyone had asked him if he wanted to own her soul, the ques­tion would have seemed to him both ridiculous and sentimental. (Galsworthy)

If Erik was ever to do anything of importance he would have to find a third way. (Wilson)

Somebody, someone, something art used in special and general ques­tions if they express some request or proposal.

Will someone help me?

Anyone, anybody, anything may be used in affirmative sentences. Anyone, anybody are used with the meaning of 'everyone' (любой); anything is used with the meaning of'everything' (что угодно).

"You've no business to say such a thing!" she exclaimed. "Why not? Anybody can see it." (Galsworthy)

There is a limit to what anyone can bear. (Voynich)

... she sank in spirit inwardly and fluttered feebly at the heart as she thought of entering anyone of these mighty concerns and asking for something to do — something that she could do — anything. (Dreiser)

2. The indefinite pronouns some and any may be used as subject, object and attribute.

Some say the world will end in fire. Some say in ice. (Frost) (SUBJECT)

"I watch the fire — and the boiling and the roasting — " "When there is any," says Mr. George, with great expression. (Dickens) (SUBJECT)

... and his attention slid at once from such finality to the dust motes in the bluish sunlight coming in. Thrusting his hand up he tried to catch some. (Galsworthy) (OBJECT) Where is his home? He didn't have any. (Maltz) (OBJECT) Are there any real Indians in the woods? (O. Henry) (ATTRI­BUTE)

Someone, anyone, somebody, anybody, something, anything may be used as subject, predicative, or object. When used as a subject they require a verb in the singular.

In the next house someone was playing over and over again "La donna ё mobile" on an untuned piano. (Galsworthy) (SUB­JECT)

... What he likes is anything except art. (Aldington) (PREDICA­TIVE)

And not merely did he not know any writers, but he did not know anybody who had ever attempted to write. (London) (OBJECT)

Though somebody, someone, anybody, anyone are used with the verb in the singular pronouns they, them, their are often used after them.

Someone has spilt their coffee on the carpet.

The genitive case of the pronouns somebody, someone, anybody, anyone is used as an attribute:

... he could pull his cap down over his eyes and screen himself behind someone's shoulder. (London)

"It's anybody's right," Martin heard somebody saying. (Lon­don)

... I looked up; I was in somebody's arms. (Shaw)

When preceded by a preposition the pronouns somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone, anything may be used as prepositional indirect objects.

The girl doesn't belong to anybody — is no use to anybody but me. (Shaw)

Such a purse had never been carried by anyone attentive to her. (Dreiser)

So, though he wasn't very successful at anything, he got along all right. (Aldington)

3. The indefinite-personal pronoun one is often used in the sense of any person or every person.

New York presents so many temptations for one to run into ex­travagance. (O. Henry)

The indefinite pronoun one is often used in a general sense.

... Only one with constitution of iron could have held himself down, as Martin did. (London)

The pronoun one may be used in the genitive case:

I know exactly what it feels like to be held down on one's back. (Galsworthy)

One may be used as a word-substitute:

I was looking at them, and also at intervals examining the teach­ers — none of whom precisely pleased me; for the stout one was a little coarse, the dark one not a little fierce. (Ch. Bronte)

As a word-substitute one may be used in the plural:

Some of the gentlemen were gone to the stables; the younger ones, together with the younger ladies, were playing billiards in the billiard room. (Ch. Bronte)

§13. Negative pronouns.

Most of the indefinite pronouns correspond to negative pronouns: some — no, none; something — nothing, none; somebody, someone — no­body, no one, none.

Some defining pronouns also correspond to negative pronouns: everything — nothing; all, everybody, every, each — no, none, nobody; both, either — neither

l. The negative pronoun no is used only before a noun as its at­tribute.

No dreams were possible in Dufton, where the snow seemed to turn black almost before it hit the ground. (Braine) No Forsyte can stand it for a minute. (Galsworthy)

The negative pronoun none may be applied both to human beings and things.

None of us — none of us can hold on for ever! (Galsworthy)

 ... he took the letters from the gilt wire cage into which they had been thrust through the slit in the door. None from Irene. (Galsworthy)

It can be used as subject or object.

In this he would make little fires, and cook the birds he had not shot with his gun, hunting in the coppice and fields, or the fish he did not catch in the pond because there were none. (Galsworthy) (SUBJECT)

... besides, it required woods and animals, of which he had none in his nursery except his two cats... (Galsworthy) (OBJECT)

After the combination 'none of+ a word in the plural' it is possible to use a verb both in the singular or in the plural. The plural form is rciore usual.

None of the people I met there were English.

2. The negative pronouns nobody, no one refer to human beings. They correspond to the indefinite pronouns somebody, someone and to the defining pronouns all, every, each, everybody.

The negative pronoun nobody may be used in the genitive case: nobody's.

The negative pronouns nobody and no one are mostly used as sub­jects and objects.

Nobody seemed to know him well. (Galsworthy) (SUBJECT)

He remembered the days of his desperate starvation when no one invited him to dinner. (London) (SUBJECT)

I told you once that I have no one in the world but you. (Voynich) (OBJECT)

We'd have nobody to fight the war. (Heym) (OBJECT)

The pronoun nobody in the genitive case is used as an attribute.

Now Mr. Pullet never rode anything taller than a low pony, and was the least predatory of men, considering fire-arms danger­ous, as apt to go off themselves by nobody's particular desire. (Eliot)

The pronouns nobody, no one preceded by a preposition are used as prepositional indirect objects.

Among all the crowd who came and went here, there and every­where, she cared for nobody. (Galsworthy)

After the pronouns nobody, no one the pronouns they, their, them are often used in Modern English.

Nobody phoned, did they?

3. The negative pronoun nothing refers to things. It is opposite to the indefinite pronoun something and to the defining pronoun everything.

And nothing of vital importance had happened after that till the year turned. (Galsworthy)

Nothing may be used as subject, predicative, or object.

There is nothing to worry about. (Galsworthy) (SUBJECT)

"Now, look here, Marian, this is nothing but nonsense," Martin began. (London) (PREDICATIVE)

... she brought nothing with her but the feeling of adventure. (Galsworthy) (OBJECT)

When preceded by a preposition nothing may be used as a prepo­sitional indirect object:

On that train he thought of nothing but Lilly. (Wilson)

4. The negative pronoun neither is opposite to the defining pronouns either; both. Similar to these pronouns, it is used when people are talk­ing about two things.

Neither of them answered; but their faces seemed to him as if contemptuous. (Galsworthy)

In the sentence it may be used as subject, object, and attribute.

Neither was wise enough to be sure of the working of the mind of the other. (Dreiser) (SUBJECT)

 I like neither of them. (OBJECT)

We approved neither plan. (ATTRIBUTE)

The negative pronouns nobody, no one, nothing art singular in mean­ing and when they are used as the subject of the sentence they require a verb in the singular (see the above examples).

The negative pronoun neither when used with the preposition of can combine with a verb in the singular or in the plural.

Neither of us is/are married.

Neither of the children wants/want to go to bed.

 

Chapter VI

 

THE NUMERAL

§ 1. The numeral is a part of speech which indicates number or the order of people and things in a series.

Accordingly numerals are divided into cardinals (cardinal numer­als) and ordinals (ordinal numerals).

§ 2. Cardinal numerals.

Cardinal numerals indicate exact number, they are used in counting. As to their structure, the cardinal numerals from 1 to 12 and 100, 1000, 1,000,000 are simple words {one, two, three, etc., hundred, thousand, million); those from 13 to 19 are derivatives with the suffix -teen (thir­teen, fourteen, etc.); the cardinal numerals indicating tens are formed by means of the suffix -ty (twenty, thirty, etc.). The numerals from 21 to 29, from 31 to 39, etc. are composite: twenty-two, thirty-five, etc.

Note 1. Twenty-two, thirty-five, etc. are spelt with a hyphen.

Note 2. In two hundred and twenty-three, four hundred and sixteen etc. there must be the word and after the word hundred.

 

Such cardinal numerals as hundred, thousand, million may be used with articles (a hundred, a thousand, a million); they may be substan­tivized and used in the plural (hundreds, thousands, millions). When used after other numerals they do not take (two hundred times, thirty thousand years etc.). The word million may be used with or without -s (two million, two millions). When the word million is followed by some other cardinal numeral only the first variant is possible: two million five hundred inhabitants.

§ 3. The functions of cardinal numerals in a sentence.

Cardinal numerals are used in the function of subject, pieuicative, object, adverbial modifier and attribute (apposition)

... the young man opposite had long since disappeared. Now the othertwo got out. (Mansfield) (SUBJECT) Earle Fox was onlyfifty-four, but he felt timeless and ancient. (Wilson) (PREDICATIVE)

And again she saw them, but notfour, more likeforty laughing, sneering, jeering... (Mansfield) (OBJECT) Ateight the gang sounded for supper. (Mansfield) (ADVERBIAL MODIFIER)

Four men in their shirt-sleeves stood grouped together on the garden path. (Mansfield) (ATTRIBUTE)

And he remembered the holidays they used to have thefour of them, with a little girl, Rose, to look after the babies. (Mansfield) (APPOSITION)

Cardinals are sometimes used to denote the place of an object in a series. Cardinals are used in reading indications: line 23, page 275, ChapterX, No. 49, etc.

... but from the corner of the street until she came toNo. 26 she thought of those four flights of stairs. (Mansfield)

Class nouns modified by a numeral in post-position are used without articles.

All he wanted was to be made to care again, but each night he took up his briefcase and walked home to dinner at 117th Street and Riverside Drive,apartment 12D. (Wilson)

§ 4. Ordinal numerals.

Ordinal numerals show the order of people and things in a series. With the exception of the first three (first, second, third) the ordinal numerals are formed from cardinal numerals by means of the suffix -th.

In ordinal groups only the last member of the group takes the ordinal form: (the) sixty-fifth, (the) twenty-third. Ordinal numerals are generally used with the definite article {the first, the fifth, the tenth, etc.). Ordinal numerals may be used with the indefinite article when they do not show a definite order of people and things in a series:

"I've torn simply miles and miles of the frill," waileda third.(Mansfield)

As a rule ordinal numerals are used as attributes.

"No, this is myfirst dance," she said. (Mansfield)

Almost immediately the band started and hersecond partner seemed to spring from the ceiling. (Mansfield)

But they may also be used as subject, as predicative and as object.

Then, advancing obliquely towards us, camea fifth. (Wells) (SUBJECT)

Sooner or later, someone is going to tell you about that damned river, so I might as well bethe first. (Wilson) (PREDICATIVE) ... she noted a scar on his cheek, another that peeped out from under the hair of the forehead, anda third that ran down and disappeared under the starched collar. (London) (OBJECT)

In fractional numbers the numerator is a cardinal and the denomi­nator is a substantivized ordinal: two-thirds, three-sixths.

Decimal fractions are read in the following way: 7.58 — seven point (decimal) five eight.