Features of scientific texts

The scientific paper is described as a sequence of sections devoted to the description of a ‘state of affairs’, a ‘problem’ or anomaly, a ‘hypothesis’ or potential ‘solution’, some tests and results, an ‘evaluation’, and ‘implications’. Three basic types for scientific papers can be identified: Problem- Solution, Hypothesis-Testing, and Methodological. In a Methodological paper, the author states the deficiencies of current methods and proposes a ‘new’ method,

which he will then demonstrate by tests as an improvement (or substitution) for other methods. In a Hypothesis-Testing paper, the author states the ‘problematic’ area and describes the various proposals that have been suggested, and then examine each for their advantages and disadvantages. In a Problem-Solution paper, the author describes the current situation and the problem he is tackling, and then the methods he will use.

Each may be seen as variants of a general type with the following sequence of sections: Situation, Problem, Hypothesis or Hypotheses of Proposed Method, Tests (experiments), Evaluations (of results), Solution (or decision), Implications (or Further Work). In practice, scientific articles are usually organised more simply: an ‘Introduction’, which covers statements of the overall ‘topic’, the Situation, the Problem and the proposed solution (Hypothesis); then a section of ‘Experiments and Results’, covering Tests, Evaluation, and Solution; and a final section of ‘Conclusions’ for statements of Implications and Further Work.

 

Types of texts DESCRIPTIVE TEXTS INSTRUCTIVE TEXTS INFORMATIVE TEXTS It is a text that wants you to picture what they are describing. They usually: make use of adjectives and adverbs use comparisons to help picture it - something is like something Employ your five senses. It is a text that instructs or tells you how to do something. are written as though the reader is being spoken to - (although the word 'you' is not usually used) language is direct and unnecessary words are left out often use 'must' and 'must not' sometimes use diagrams or pictures to help understanding It is a text that wants to advise or tell you about something. They: avoid repetition contain facts give information in a clear way - introducing the subject and then developing it.

n the process of website development as well as during the whole lifetime of a site content is one of the principal elements of any website. To website content we refer texts, images and multimedia elements. Creation of unique custom content for a website is called Internet copywriting.

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Copywriting of texts for websites has its own specific features which depend on the aims and tasks that have been set for these particular texts. For example, texts on websites devoted to social projects or on websites of non-commercial organizations will differ greatly from advertising texts designed for “selling” websites.

Internet copywriting must take into account the main needs of the target audience of websites. In this connection we can single out several main groups of texts, they are: social, informative, image, advertising, business (official) etc. Each of these groups of texts is based on a certain set of principles.

For example, business texts for websites are written in accordance with the requirements of official style of presentation (functional style of official documents): compactness and conciseness, use of collocations specific for business environment, lack of expressive expressions, narrative character etc. As a rule, such texts are used for filling of corporate websites.

Internet copywriting of image texts takes into account the main requirements of modern PR (Public Relations): persuasiveness of presentation, use of facts and conclusions that are useful for the company, availability of statistical evidence in favor of the company etc. Image texts are written in the form of an interview with a representative of the company, a press release devoted to some event in the company, or a fact list.

Advertising texts are the most asked-for because the ultimate aim of most sites is to improve the sales of goods or services offered by companies. Internet copywriting of advertising texts should take into account the interests of a strictly defined target group (people of certain age, income, social status) and present information about the company in the most favorable light. For instance, advertising texts are characterized by clear enumeration of advantages of a product or a service for a potential customer, simplicity and accessibility of presentation, clear structure.

The most extensive group of texts for websites is comprised of informative texts. Informative texts give site visitors an opportunity to study proposed services and goods as thoroughly as possible or to become familiar with the problems and issues to which the site is dedicated. Copywriting of informative texts includes detailed presentation of the characteristic features of the company's products, reveals the “secrets” of the company in an accessible form.

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WebSutdio2U has a team of professional copywriters of who will write the texts of required subject for your website. Our copywriters observe all modern norms and standards: high uniqueness, accordance with the goals and tasks of the site, accessibility for the readers. Each text for your site written in our web studio will help to promote it in the search engines, improve the recognizability of your brand and increase the sales of your company and, therefore, your income. We write texts of all kinds!

For our purposes, texts can be categorized into the following groups:

• Created texts: Texts authored by non-native speakers for non-native speakers to achieve pre-determined curricular goals.
• Semi-authentic texts: Texts created by native and/or non-native speaker, based on original language materials, but adapted to fit curricular needs.
• Authentic texts: Texts created by native speakers for native speakers for consumption in a native environment.

Created texts have long dominated the materials used in language classrooms. But increasingly, educators are coming to understand the need to bring more authentic texts into the learning environment.

 

Imaginative texts – texts whose primary purpose is to entertain through their imaginative use of literary elements. They are recognised for their form, style and artistic or aesthetic value. These texts include novels, traditional tales, poetry, stories, plays, fiction for young adults and children including picture books and multimodal texts such as film.

Informative texts – texts whose primary purpose is to provide information. They include texts which are culturally important in society and are valued for their informative content, as a store of knowledge and for their value as part of everyday life. These texts include explanations and descriptions of natural phenomena, recounts of events, instructions and directions, rules and laws and news bulletins.

Persuasive texts – whose primary purpose is to put forward a point of view and persuade a reader, viewer or listener. They form a significant part of modern communication in both print and digital environments. They include advertising, debates, arguments, discussions, polemics and influential essays and articles

Narrative

o Narratives are accounts of past events, either real or fictional. A narrative essay, which tells about real incidents, must have a clearly defined setting, characters, plot and point of view. It must include an introduction, a climax and a conclusion. The author's purpose in writing a narrative essay is to communicate an important lesson learned during the story -- such as the importance of knowing how to swim when he nearly drowned -- and not just recount past events.

Expository Text

o The purpose of an expository text is to give information about a specific topic. It is not storytelling, but a straightforward discussion of a topic, such as population increase in New England, the reasons behind it and its effects. According to Professor Arnetha F. Ball of Stanford University, the author of an expository text cannot assume that the reader has prior knowledge of the topic; therefore, the writer must use plain language and an easy-to-follow structure.

o

Technical Text

o The author of a technical text also has the purpose of explaining a specific topic, but a technical text's language and structure distinguish it from other expository types. A technical text contains specific terminology to address the text's issues and avoids colloquial terms, humor and critical language. In addition, vague terms and figurative language have no place in a technical text, while authors use few -- if any -- interrogative and imperative sentences.

Persuasive Text

o The author of persuasive text tries to convince her audience of the validity of her opinion. This type of text can employ a number of different persuasive methods. As the Plymouth City Council suggests, these techniques include the use of rhetorical questions, repetition, emotive language, exaggeration, addressing the readers directly and using facts as a means of backing up a point. The writer must mention the issue addressed clearly and express her opinion on it explicitly.

Descriptive text type

Based on perception in space. Impressionistic of landscapes or persons are often to be found in narratives such as novels or short stories. Example: About fifteen miles below Monterey, on the wild coast, the Torres family had their farm, a few sloping acres above the cliff that dropped to the brown reefs and to the hissing white waters of the ocean...

Purpose

Description is used in all forms of writing to create a vivid impression of a person, place, object or event e.g. to:

• describe a special place and explain why it is special
• describe the most important person in your life

Descriptive writing is usually used to help a writer develop an aspect of their work, e.g. to create a particular mood, atmosphere or describe a place so that the reader can create vivid pictures of characters, places, objects etc.

Features

Description is a style of writing which can be useful for a variety of purposes:

• to engage a reader's attention
• to create characters
• to set a mood

Language

• aims to show rather than tell the reader what something/someone is like
• relies on precisely chosen vocabulary with carefully chosen adjectives and adverbs.
• is focused and concentrates only on the aspects that add something to the main purpose of the description.
• sensory description - what is heard, seen, smelt, felt, tasted. Precise use of adjectives, similes, metaphors to create images/pictures in the mind e.g. their noses were met with the acrid smell of rotting flesh.
• strong development of the experience that "puts the reader there" focuses on key details, powerful verbs and precise nouns.

Narrative text type

Based on perception in time. Narration is the telling of a story; the succession of events is given in chronological order.

Purpose

The basic purpose of narrative is to entertain, to gain and hold a readers' interest. However narratives can also be written to teach or inform, to change attitudes / social opinions e.g. soap operas and television dramas that are used to raise topical issues. Narratives sequence people/characters in time and place but differ from recounts in that through the sequencing, the stories set up one or more problems, which must eventually find a way to be resolved. The common structure or basic plan of narrative text is known as the "story grammar". Although there are numerous variations of the story grammar, the typical elements are:

• Setting—when and where the story occurs.
• Characters—the most important people or characters in the story.
• Initiating event—an action or occurrence that establishes a problem and/or goal.
• Conflict/goal—the focal point around which the whole story is organized.
• Events—one or more attempts by the main character(s) to achieve the goal or solve the problem.
• Resolution—the outcome of the attempts to achieve the goal

The graphic representation of these story grammar elements is called a story map. The exact form and complexity of a map depends, of course, upon the unique structure of each narrative and the personal preference of the teacher constructing the map.

Types of Narrative

There are many types of narrative. They can be imaginary, factual or a combination of both. They may include fairy stories, mysteries, science fiction, romances, horror stories, adventure stories, fables, myths and legends, historical narratives, ballads, slice of life, personal experience. Features

• Characters with defined personalities/identities.
• Dialogue often included - tense may change to the present or the future.
• Descriptive language to create images in the reader's mind and enhance the story.

Structure

In a Traditional Narrative the focus of the text is on a series of actions:

Orientation: (Introduction) in which the characters, setting and time of the story are established. Usually answers who? When? Where? E.g. Mr. Wolf went out hunting in the forest one dark gloomy night.

Complication or problem: The complication usually involves the main character(s) (often mirroring the complications in real life).

Resolution: There needs to be a resolution of the complication. The complication may be resolved for better or worse/happily or unhappily. Sometimes there are a number of complications that have to be resolved. These add and sustain interest and suspense for the reader.

Further more, when there is plan for writing narrative texts, the focus should be on the following characteristics:

• Plot: What is going to happen?
• Setting: Where will the story take place? When will the story take place?
• Characterization: Who are the main characters? What do they look like?
• Structure: How will the story begin? What will be the problem? How is the problem going to be resolved?
• Theme: What is the theme / message the writer is attempting to communicate?

 

Expository text type

It aims at explanation, i.e. the cognitive analysis and subsequent syntheses of complex facts. Example: An essay on "Rhetoric: What is it and why do we study it?"

 

Argumentative text type

Based on the evaluation and the subsequent subjective judgement in answer to a problem. It refers to the reasons advanced for or against a matter.

Poetic communication

(* autobiography
* biography
* diary
* drama
* essay
* novel
* novella
* poetry
* short story
* song lyric
* travel writing
//* cartoon//
//* parody//
//* pastiche//)

involves stimulating, inspiring, moving, shocking, entertaining or capturing the imagination of the audience. It is often characterized by literary features such as imagery, rhyme and narrative stucture, and has a finer relationship between form and meaning than many other types of communication. In this context, "poetic" should be understood in its broadest sense and refers to literart features rather than the poetic genre.

Mass communication

(* advertisement
* appeal
* brochure/leaflet
* editorial
* interview
* journalistic review
* letter to editor
* magazine article
* manifesto
* news report
* opinion column
* speech)

involves informing, persuading or entertaining the audience. It is often meant to be quickly understood and may be characterized by brevity, precision or stereotyped language. It is intended to appeal to a wide audience.

Professional communication

(* guide
* letter
* letter of application
* police statement
* report
* set of instructions or guidelines)

involves presenting, analysing or conveying factual information for a specific target audience. It is often characterized by formality of register, logic, detail and specific terminology.

Appeal

an address to an individual or a group in the hope of a favourable response. An appeal seeks to be attractive or acceptable.
(when you want people to donate money for example)

Editorial

an expression of the (impersonal) opinion of the editor or editorial team of a newspaper or magazine about a recent event or current issue.

Interview

a question-and-answer style dialogue. It may include a brief introduction to the interviewee, setting or circumstances of the interview.
For student production, an interview could be presented as a spoked or written text; if written, the text is the transcription of its spoken counterpart.

Journalistic review

a review of a book, film, television or radio programme that is suitable for inclusion in a newspaper or magazine. It is based on the author's experience and is subjective.

Magazine article

a non-fictional text written to inform readers about a particular subject or issue in some detail. It should not be confused with an exam-style essay or broad summary of a cultural option studied in class

Manifesto

a written, public and solemn declaration by any individuals or groups of public importance, in which they present a programe or justify their positions.

Opinion column

the part of a newspaper of journal devoted to the expresseion of journalists' or readers' opinions.

Parody

a humorous and/or exaggerated imitation of a literary work or style.

Pastiche

the imitation or recreation of an already published work. Students are expected to imitate the style and form of the original.
(only for written tasks)