The subject of text linguistics

Text Linguistics

Lecture 1 (1 hour)

Theme: The emergence of text linguistics. The place of text linguistics among other scientific disciplines. Links of text linguistics with other branches of science. Directions of text linguistics development.

Aim: - to make an introduction of the subject, its aims and principles

    - to activate students’ to brainstorm on the questions

    - to provide a summary of key items

    - to link the students experience with learning

    - to make learning two-way process

 

Activity descriptions:

I. Speaking on the subject, its aims and principles, the object of investigation

II. Introduction of the list of basic and supplementary literature

III. Presentation of the themes of lectures, seminars, tutorials, individual work

IV. Presentation of the linguistic terms, notions, and the lecture

 

Questions for brainstorming:

1) What is text linguistics?

2) How do you define text linguistics?

3) What are the common reasons that text linguistics has become the study of research?

4) What is the relation of context to text?

5) What are the theoretical and practical importances of text linguistics?

6) What is the aim of text linguistics?

7) What are the main tasks or objectives of text linguistics?

8) Can you name any Western, Soviet and Home scholars who dealt with text linguistics?

9) What does text linguistics study?

10) What are the links of text linguistics with other branches of science?

11) What are the main directions of text linguistics development?

 

Problems to discuss:

- Definition of text linguistics

- Aim, objectives of text linguistics

- Directions of text linguistics development

- Links of text linguistics with other branches of science

 

The list of literature:

1. Валгина Н.С. Теория текста. Учебное пособие. Москва. Логос. 2003 г.

2. Тураева З.Я. Лингвистика текста. Москва «Просвещение» 1986 г.

3. ван Дейк Т.А. Язык. Познание. Коммуникация. Прогресс. 1989 г.

4. Филиппов К.А. Лингвистика текста. Курс лекций. Санкт-петербург. 2003 г.

5. Robert de Beaugrande and Wolfgang Dressler. Introduction to Text Linguistics. Longman. 1983

6. Brian Paltridge. Discourse Analysis. London. 2010

7. Barbara Johnstone. Discourse Analysis. USA. 2002

8. Selivanova E.A. The principles of the linguistic theory of the text and communication. – K.,2002

9. Tchirova I.A., Goncharova E.A. Multidimensionality of the text: understanding and interpretation. – S-Pb., 2007

10. Panchenko N.V. & al. Text theory. - M.,2010

11. Zimnaja I.A. Lingual psychology of speech activity.-M.-Voroneg, 2001

12. Kolshansky G.V. About linguistic method of text outcome// Linguistic questions-1983-No 3-P.44-51

13. Blokh M.Y. A Course in Theoretical English Grammar. – M., 2000. – p.229-236, 261-272

14. Гальперин И.Р. Текст как объект лингвистического исследования. М., 1981

15. Лотман Ю.М. Анализ художественного текста. – Л., 1972

 

1) Defining text linguistics

Let’s define text linguistics:

1) The most general definition of  Text linguistics is a branch of which studies the peculiarities of text structure.

2) In modern linguistic literature Text Linguistics (TL) is defined in different ways, for example, in “Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary” TL  is treated as “a trend of linguistic research that studies (1) the rules according to which it is possible to construct a coherent text and (2) textual categories that are expressed according to these rules.

3) ”T.M.Nikolaeva, suggested a different definition just some years before: “TL is a scientific discipline,  the aim of which is to find and to construct a system of textual categories with some specific meaningful and formal units, as well as to describe the conditions of “adequate” communication”.

4) This last definition of TL was suggested in 1978. In it we may trace great expectations of scholars and their belief in the   possibilities of a new linguistic trend rather than in already existing results though TL is qualified in it as a “ scientific discipline”.

           

A period of 12 years separates the two above presented definitions. No doubt, the definition of 1990 reflects the essence of linguistic analysis of a text in a more concise way.

5) In foreign scientific literature TL is defined in a similar way. Thus, H.Bussman in the dictionary of linguistic terms writes: “TL is linguistic discipline that deals with analysis of language regularities  that exceed the limits of the sentence. The objective of TL is to define the constituting features of a text as a language unit and in this way to foundations of the theory of a text”.

The common feature all above presented definitions is an attempt to single out a separate trend within linguistic, a trend that investigate speech unities and their fragment (parts, sections, units). The question whether speech unities/texts may be treated as language signs of real value equal to phonemes, morphemes, words and sentences, is solved differently in each separate case  depending on the scientific position of scholars.

6) Text linguistics is a branch of linguistics that deals with texts as communication systems. Its original aims lay in uncovering and describing text grammars. The application of text linguistics has, however, evolved from this approach to a point in which text is viewed in much broader terms that go beyond a mere extension of traditional grammar towards an entire text. Text linguistics takes into account the form of a text, but also its setting, i.e. the way in which it is situated in an interactional, communicative context. Both the author of a (written or spoken) text as well as its addressee are taken into consideration in their respective (social and/or institutional) roles in the specific communicative context. In general it is an application of linguistic analysis at the much broader level of text, rather than just a sentence or word.

7) In Metzler Lexikon Sprache, TL is defined as “a linguistic discipline, that studies structural peculiarities of texts, conditions of their production and interrelation, their language variability and processing” [Metzler 1993].

8) Text linguistics is an area of study within the linguistics field that focuses on the meaning and interpretation of written texts. This type of linguistics looks at ways in which the written word produces meaning, both on a small and large scale. Text linguistics is generally used by academics and is related to literary criticism. It grew out of structuralism in the 1960s.

9) TEXT LINGUISTICS is a branch of LINGUISTICS that deals with texts as communication systems. Its original aims lay in uncovering and describing text grammars. The application of text linguistics has, however, evolved from this approach to a point in which text is viewed in much broader terms that go beyond a mere extension of traditional grammar towards an entire text.

TEXT LINGUISTICS as a sub-branch of LINGUISTICS did not really develop until the early 1970s, until linguistics itself began to be less concerned with the SENTENCE as the prime unit of analysis; or at least until it began to be felt that some special discipline should take care of potential units larger than a sentence, or of intra-sentence relations. One major concern is the definition of TEXTUALITY; and also the classification or typology of texts according to their GENRE characteristics. Under the influence of PRAGMATICS and PSYCHOLOGY, more attention is being focused on the production or processing and reception of texts, and on their social function in society.

· Accordingly, TEXT LINGUISTICS can be defined as the study of text as a product (text grammar) or as a process (theory of text). The text-as-a-product approach is focused on the text cohesion, coherence, topical organization, illocutionary structure and communicative functions; the text-as-a-process approach studies the text production, reception and interpretation.

Contemporary text linguistics studies the text and its structure, its categories and components as well as ways of constructing texts. Text linguistics takes intoaccount the form of the text, but also its setting, i.e. the way in which it is situated in an interactional, communicative context. Both the author of a (written or spoken) text as well as its addressee are taken into consideration in their respective (social and/or institutonal) roles in the specific communicative context. In general it is an application of linguistic analysis at the much broader level of text, rather than just a sentence or word.

 TEXT LINGUISTICS study:

· The development of various paradigms for the study of how sentences interconnect. Text linguists have drawn attention to the various linguistic devices that can be used to ensure that a text "hangs together" (cf. the concept of textual cohesion). Such devices are called " cohesive devices or cohesive ties " and they include the use of lexical repetition, the use of articles, personal pronouns to refer back to entities mentioned earlier in a text and the use of linking words to establish a particular logical relationship of, say, contrast, concession or addition between two or more sentences in a text.

· The development of a typology of text types (esp. written text types). The most commonly known classification is that typological variation can be reduced to 5 functional types: argumentative texts, narrative texts, descriptive texts, expository texts and instructive texts. In some versions of this theory, the 5 types tend to be viewed as textualisation-strategies. It is possible to incorporate different parts from different text types which fall under different functional headings in one single text (for instance, a novel may consist of descriptive, narrative and argumentative episodes; a newspaper editorial is likely to contain narrative and argumentative parts).

· The study of textual sequencing which is concerned with how sentences functionally interrelate within particular rhetorical schemata (e.g. types of textual sequencing such as top-down and bottom-up methods of proceeding; an example of the former is a sequence consisting of a general claim > a specific application > listing arguments > giving examples; an example of a bottom-up way of proceeding is: an example > analysis > next example > analysis > a conclusion).

It seems quite natural to claim that “text” is the subject of TL as a science. Mykhailo Mykhailovych Bakhtin, defining the place of a text in the Humanities, wrote: “… we are interested in the peculiarities of linguistic thought, directed at the analysis of thoughts, implications and meanings characteristic of different people and realized only in the form of a text. No matter what the aims of investigation might be, only a text may be a starting point of any linguistic research. And further: “A text is a primary reality and a starting point any philological discipline”. Such evaluation of the role of a text for philological disciplines predetermines (calls for) the necessity of re-evaluation of the subject of linguistics proper.

Certainly, M. M. Bakhtin, speaking about the fundamental role of a text for philological reasoning, hardly meant the necessity to single out a special trend in linguistics, dealing with the analysis of big text fragments.

The most adequate definition of TL is that qualifying it as a science, studying “language in action”. M.A.K. Halliday also claims that “a text is language in action.

In his opinion, the speakers of a language should know the difference between a text and non-text (lists of words or any sets of sentences). For the speaker such knowledge is considered a norm, it is functional, because it is based not just on the recognition of words and structures, but on the understanding of the role a language plays in such situation. On the whole, language may be of some importance only if it meets the criteria of a text. In such wide understanding linguistics in general is viewed as TL.

When TL was in the process of its formation, the scholars did not mean to re-orient traditional linguistics. They aimed at a mere widening of the limits of scientific description of language phenomena. After decades of careful study of well-known structural language units they suddenly had to face new horizons of scientific interest. They went beyond the limits of a separate sentence and saw a new world of contextual relations and structural ties within the whole speech fragment.

The aim of text linguistics is to find and to construct a system of textual categories with some specific meaningful and formal units, as well as to describe the conditions of “adequate” communication”.

The objectives of text linguistics are to study the systematic description of a text; to describe text grammars; to study correlation of a text with context; to study structure, functions, categories of a text; to identify the functions of language units in text;

Our basic task in text linguistics is to study about a text itself, its types, textual categories, types of information in a text, text analysis, language units in a text, linguistic functions of a text, different modern approaches to text analysis or text study.

The main directions of text linguistics development:

1) study of texts as a system (connection, unity)

2) formation of text typology due to communicative criteria and linguistic features (expressiveness, content)

3) study of units which texts consist of

4) identification of main text categories

5) functioning of language units under the influence of texts

6) study of inner phrasal links and relations

7) study of internal and external parts/functions of a text

2) Urgent tasks of modern Text Linguistics

The author of one of the first Russian textbooks devoted to Text linguistics Z. Turaeva singles out several directions of modern linguistic text analysis. Actually, those are not directions, but particular tasks the scholars had to deal with since the science of TL appeared and which need further investigation in present days.

 

1.Study of a text as a system of a higher rank, the main characteristics of which are integrity and coherence. The solution of this problem presupposes recognition of the idea that a text is a certain complex speech unity, a structural-semantic formation, different from a simple sequence of sentences. This is a unity consolidated by communicative integrity, semantic completeness, logical, grammatical, and semantic links. The study of interrelations between surface and deep structures of a text is admitted to be the most promising trend of scientific research in this field.

 

2. Formation of typology of texts according to communicative parameters, and their correlative linguistic characteristics. The typological study of a text entails great difficulties connected with endless variations of the very object under analysis. Neverheless, the study of communicative, structural, and semantic peculiarities of a text allows, us to determine certain parameters of classification, separating one group of texts from another.

 

3. Study of units that form a text.

The process of characterizing units of a text division makes sense only in case when these units differ not only: in volume, but also in special qualities not reduced to a. mere total of elements that make them up. Such unit in TL is the complex syntactic unity or the supra-phrasal unity. With the introduction of the unit of a higher rank than a sentence the limits of syntactic, theory widen.

 

4. Determination of qualitative peculiarities of functioning of language units of different levels under the influence of a text as a result of their integration by a text. The ability to influence language units that make up a text is recognized as one of the peculiarities of a text as a structural-semantic unity. Under the influence of the text some new, additional meanings become realized in the elements that constitute the text. These (potential) meanings were characteristic of a given, element as a unit of language system and became active under the influence of a text, that is, they have transferred from the hidden, latent state to the open state. These new meanings may have appeared for the first time as a result of interaction of the given unit with the context.

 

5. Study of inter-phrasal links and relations. Examination of structural, semantic and other means of connection between the components of a text contributes to elaboration the syntax of complex speech structures. The realization of connections between complex integral sentences is often hidden from direct observation, and a deep penetration into the body of the text is necessary for their revelation.

 

6. Introduction of peculiar categories of a text. The determination, of the circle of special textual notions and peculiar textual categories forms the subject of the newest TL. I.R.Galperin, for example, considers prospection and retrospection to be the categories of a text. Still, there is no unity of opinion among the scholars concerning either the essence of textual categories or their classification. Another problem also remains unsolved: what are the means of expression of a certain category.

Prof.W.Carstens (school of Language and Arts, Potchetsroom University for CHE) in paper “Text Linguistics: Relevant linguistics?” puts forward the notion that the linguistic sub-discipline of text linguistics is a kind of umbrella discipline which makes the study of the different disciplines of linguistics more relevant. By this I mean that knowledge of text linguistics should benefit students also when studying syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics,  and so forth, because, as I will argue, this knowledge will enhance the value of these disciplines.

He does it in the following way: firstly, indicating what text linguistics actually entails and, secondly, then showing how the different traditional linguistic disciplines can be studied in the light of a new perspective.

 

Types of text linguistics

Since the 1970s, i.e. the time when text linguistics began to develop as a separate

branch of linguistics, it has been possible to observe the widening of the scope of investigation

of this discipline. This has recently been a subject of discussion of various

Polish researchers, some of their views are, therefore, worth recalling. Jerzy Bartmiński

(2005: 47) sees modern textology as a common ground for linguists and literary

researchers, which opens a prospect for the integration of the whole philological

discipline. In his other works (Bartmiński 1998 as well as Bartmiński, Niebrzegowska-

Bartmińska 2009: 12–13) the scholar also advocates a broad scope of textology,

indicating that it encompasses all the detailed aspects of text. It may therefore be divided into a number of branches: theoretical textology (text theory), descriptive

textology, and applied textology (practical). The first branch focuses on studying

suprasentential units, which are able to function independently in the process of

communication. The aim of the second branch – descriptive textology – is to study

the structure, semantics, and pragmatics of concrete texts, and carry out their analysis

and interpretation with the help of methods of linguistics and literary studies.

The third branch, i.e. applied textology, covers practical operations on texts, their

transformations, development, summarising, etc. Here Bartmiński also places editorship

and text taxonomy. Bartmiński discusses the name of the discipline as well.

As an advocate of the term ‘textology’ he points out that the name ‘text linguistics’

separates linguistic studies from the literary or anthropological studies of text

(Bartmiński 1998: 19–20). It appears to me, however, that both of these terms may

be treated synonymously (Labocha 2008), since, as the history and practice of the

studies of this discipline have demonstrated, the linguistic aspect cannot in many

cases be separated from the references to the theory of literature, poetics, folk studies,

cultural studies, etc. Both terms – text linguistics and textology – imply a broader

context than only the strictly linguistics one, i.e. they indicate the interdisciplinary approach to the subject.

Text Linguistics

Lecture 2 (2 hours)

Text Linguistics

Lecture 3 (1 hour)

Types of literary texts

Typologies of literary texts have been made since Antiquity and form a recurrent chapter in any treatise on poetics and rhetoric. These classifications are not only established at the level of scientific description.All users of literature, both writers and readers, are clearly aware oftypological differentiations. A theory of literary types therefore has tobe a model formally representing this knowledge, by providing the textual and contextual criteria underlying it. We have to stress that our systematic insight into literary classifications has scarcely advanced since Aristotle's Poetics, at least not until the work done from Russian Formalism onwards. The problem however is well known and literary types even have the special name of GENRE.13 In what follows we want to argue that satisfactory typologies of literary texts have to be based on generative text grammars, and more specifically on LITERARY TEXT GRAMMARS. Moreover, from the discussion in the previous section, we may even now conclude that any explicit typology in fact coincides with a normal empirical theory. Indeed, it is not sufficient to enumerate alleged distinctive traits of a postulated type of (literary) text, we must also specify on the one hand the relations between these traits, and on the other hand the relations between the distinctive and and the non-distinctive traits, i.e. general properties of the type of text we want to characterize. Such descriptions are plain theories and our typological knowledge derives automatically from an accepted partition of the universe of (meta-)discourse, i.e., from a division of the theoretical labour. It is further motivated by empirical reasons of the restricted For a survey of the work done on literary genres. At an early stage of research, which characterizes current theoretical poetics, we may be satisfied with the description of rather homogeneous subclasses of literary texts, that is, of types. The discovery of more general properties is either premature or leads to rather trivial generalizations blurring empirically interesting differences among types of texts. These facts have been intuitively recognized in traditional literarytheory: all manuals treat literature by studying its respective `genres'. A first remark that should be made in this context is that the notion of literature' itself implies or has implied a textual typology. Clearly, the distinction of a set of texts called literary' presupposes a set of non- literary texts, and exclusively and exhaustively defines the universe of texts. This is trivial only at first sight, because we also might give a nonbinary, nonexclusive, typology of that universe. Strictly speaking, some types of literary texts — like short stories — are 'closer' to some types of nonliterary texts than to other literary texts — e.g., poems.

This fact cannot be overlooked and seems to indicate that 'formal' (textual) resemblances or differences are often secondary criteria for typology. In many cases the performance-based functional criterion esthetic vs. nonesthetic seems to be dominant here.

Such typologies may have important heuristic value, although an explicit enumeration of differentiating criteria and the degrees in which these types satisfy them is necessary.

Monologue (Greek monos - and one Greek. Logos - speech) - a form of speech (text), extended expression of one person.
Dialogue (Greek dialogos) - a form of speech, representing a conversation between two or more persons.

Monologue text - is the text submitted in the first person or entity - an outside observer, the text also filed on behalf of an indefinite or impersonal.
Dialogue text is usually represented as a combination of replies belonging to different parties.
Dialogue exists as an independent publicist or philosophical genre (eg, Plato's dialogues).
Actually dialogue is the main form of speech in dramatic works, but in principle and monologue text (the author) can include dialogic fragments. Dialogic inclusions in form of speech often accompany the characters of fiction texts.

 Dialogue peculiar any scientific and popular scientific texts, although, naturally, the dialogic form more densely represented in the texts of discussion, polemic. Obvious or hidden dialogue is always accompanied by the presentation of new knowledge (theories, concepts), since it is necessary to refute the old. In popular science text appeal to dialogization other goals related to communication of promotional tasks. Educational and instructional literature also refers to the peculiar forms of dialogue, in accordance with its objectives - didactic.
Of course, the dialogic form used in the texts of scientific, popular scientific, educational, instructional, qualitatively different from the forms of dialogic literary text. They are usually not typical personification of speech as a literary text. Dialogue of nonfiction texts is of special means of expression that help the author to send their text to the reader, these often serve the purpose of speech means of establishing contact with the reader, they mimic the intimate conversations with him, allow the author to focus the reader's attention on important issues.
Dialogization means a lot: it is question-answer systems, address to the reader; adaptation to the joint reflection, action, and various forms of expression of motivation, ways of expressing requirements, recommendations, aimed directly at the reader; explication suspected reactions reported by the reader to the author, etc.
Fundamentally different means dialogization suit different texts, the differences concern only in their distribution in the text, in the saturation of those other texts.
The most commonly used means of syntactic dialogization (question-answer systems, rhetorical questions, exclamations, and various forms of address to the reader), and the other group consists of the actual text tools (references, footnotes, referring to the opinion of others).

Formal and informal texts

The extralinguistic factors influencing usage and development of language constitute one of the critical problems of linguistics. They are dealt with in sociolinguistics and linguostylistics. Sociolinguistics is interested in variations in language depending on social, educational, sex, age in social evaluation of speech habits in correlation of linguistic facts with the life and attitudes of the speaking community. Lingustylistics studies the correlation of speech situation and linguistic means used by speakers and different functional styles of speech and language. On various occasions a speaker makes use of different combinations open him in the vocabulary, parts of the words he uses will be independent of the sphere of communication. There are words equally fit to be used in a lecture, a poem or when speaking to a child. These are said to be stylistically neutral. The rest may consist of stylistically marked words, they not only does the speaker’s entire experience determine the words he knows and uses but also his knowledge of his audience and the relationship in which he stands to them governs his choice of words. Stylistically coloured or marked are words suitable only on certain definite occasions in specific spheres and suggestive of specific conditions of communication. These words is divided into formal and informal (also called colloquial) English or in other words stylistic characteristics of words we call functional style. The term functional style is generally accepted in modern linguistics. Professor I.V.Arnold defines it as a system of expressive means peculiar to a specific sphere of communication. When placed in different situations, people choose different kinds of words and structures to express their thoughts.  

Scientific Prose Style.

Official business style.

Publicist style.

Literary colloquial style.

Familiar colloquial style.

Each style, according to Morokhovsky has a combination of distinctive features. Among them we find oppositions like 'artistic— non-artistic', 'presence of personality—absence of it', 'formal— informal situation', 'equal— unequal social status' (of the participants of communication), 'written or oral form'. Morokhovsky emphasizes that these five classes of what he calls «speech activity» are abstractions rather than realities, they can seldom be observed in their pure forms: mixing styles is the common practice. On the whole Morokhovsky's concept is one of the few that at­tempt to differentiate and arrange the taxonomy of cardinal lin­guistic notions. According to Morokhovsky's approach language as a system includes types of thinking differentiating poetic and straightforward language, oral and written speech, and ultimate­ly, bookish and colloquial functional types of language. The next problem is stylistics of 'speech activity' connected with social stereo­types of speech behaviour. Morokhovsky defines this in the fol­lowing way: «Stereotypes of speech behaviour or functional styles of speech activity are norms for wide classes of texts or utter­ances, in which general social roles are embodied—poet, jour­nalist, manager, politician, scholar, teacher, father, mother, etc.»

In his classification of functional styles of modern English that he calls language varieties the famous British linguist D. Crystal suggests the following subdivision of these styles: regional, social, occupational, restricted and individual.

Regional varieties of English reflect the geographical origin of the language used by the speaker. Lancashire variety, Canadian English, Cockney, etc.

Social variations testify to the speaker's family, education, social status background: upper class and non-upper class, a political activist, a member of the proletariat, a Times reader, etc.

Occupational styles present quite a big group that includes the following types:

a) religious English;

b) scientific English;

c) legal English;

d) plain (official) English;

e) political English;

f) news media English further subdivided into:

• newsreporting;

• journalistics;

• broadcasting;

• sportscommentary;

• advertising.

Restricted English includes very tightly constrained uses of language when little or no linguistic variation is permitted. In these cases special rules are created by man to be consciously learned and used. These rules control everything that can be said. According to Crystal restricted varieties appear both in domestic and occupational spheres and include the following types:

a) knitwrite in books on knitting;

b) cookwrite in recipe books;

c) congratulatory messages;

d) newspaper announcements;

e) newspaper headlines;

f) sportscasting scores;

g) airspeak, the language of air traffic control;

h) emergencyspeak, the language for the emergency services; i) e-mail variety, etc.

Individual variation involves types of speech that arise from the speak­er's personal differences meaning such features as physique, interests, personality, experience and so on. Each individual has a different idiolect, a variety of the language that is as personally distinctive as a fingerprint. A particular blend of social and geographical backgrounds may produce a distinctive accent or dialect. Educational history, occupational experience, personal skills and tastes, hobbies or literary preferences will foster the use of habitual words and turns of phrase, or certain kinds of grammatical construction.

Narrative

o Narratives are accounts of past events, either real or fictional. A narrative essay, which tells about real incidents, must have a clearly defined setting, characters, plot and point of view. It must include an introduction, a climax and a conclusion. The author's purpose in writing a narrative essay is to communicate an important lesson learned during the story -- such as the importance of knowing how to swim when he nearly drowned -- and not just recount past events.

Expository Text

o The purpose of an expository text is to give information about a specific topic. It is not storytelling, but a straightforward discussion of a topic, such as population increase in New England, the reasons behind it and its effects. According to Professor Arnetha F. Ball of Stanford University, the author of an expository text cannot assume that the reader has prior knowledge of the topic; therefore, the writer must use plain language and an easy-to-follow structure.

o

Technical Text

o The author of a technical text also has the purpose of explaining a specific topic, but a technical text's language and structure distinguish it from other expository types. A technical text contains specific terminology to address the text's issues and avoids colloquial terms, humor and critical language. In addition, vague terms and figurative language have no place in a technical text, while authors use few -- if any -- interrogative and imperative sentences.

Persuasive Text

o The author of persuasive text tries to convince her audience of the validity of her opinion. This type of text can employ a number of different persuasive methods. As the Plymouth City Council suggests, these techniques include the use of rhetorical questions, repetition, emotive language, exaggeration, addressing the readers directly and using facts as a means of backing up a point. The writer must mention the issue addressed clearly and express her opinion on it explicitly.

Descriptive text type

Based on perception in space. Impressionistic of landscapes or persons are often to be found in narratives such as novels or short stories. Example: About fifteen miles below Monterey, on the wild coast, the Torres family had their farm, a few sloping acres above the cliff that dropped to the brown reefs and to the hissing white waters of the ocean...

Purpose

Description is used in all forms of writing to create a vivid impression of a person, place, object or event e.g. to:

• describe a special place and explain why it is special
• describe the most important person in your life

Descriptive writing is usually used to help a writer develop an aspect of their work, e.g. to create a particular mood, atmosphere or describe a place so that the reader can create vivid pictures of characters, places, objects etc.

Features

Description is a style of writing which can be useful for a variety of purposes:

• to engage a reader's attention
• to create characters
• to set a mood

Language

• aims to show rather than tell the reader what something/someone is like
• relies on precisely chosen vocabulary with carefully chosen adjectives and adverbs.
• is focused and concentrates only on the aspects that add something to the main purpose of the description.
• sensory description - what is heard, seen, smelt, felt, tasted. Precise use of adjectives, similes, metaphors to create images/pictures in the mind e.g. their noses were met with the acrid smell of rotting flesh.
• strong development of the experience that "puts the reader there" focuses on key details, powerful verbs and precise nouns.

Narrative text type

Based on perception in time. Narration is the telling of a story; the succession of events is given in chronological order.

Purpose

The basic purpose of narrative is to entertain, to gain and hold a readers' interest. However narratives can also be written to teach or inform, to change attitudes / social opinions e.g. soap operas and television dramas that are used to raise topical issues. Narratives sequence people/characters in time and place but differ from recounts in that through the sequencing, the stories set up one or more problems, which must eventually find a way to be resolved. The common structure or basic plan of narrative text is known as the "story grammar". Although there are numerous variations of the story grammar, the typical elements are:

• Setting—when and where the story occurs.
• Characters—the most important people or characters in the story.
• Initiating event—an action or occurrence that establishes a problem and/or goal.
• Conflict/goal—the focal point around which the whole story is organized.
• Events—one or more attempts by the main character(s) to achieve the goal or solve the problem.
• Resolution—the outcome of the attempts to achieve the goal

The graphic representation of these story grammar elements is called a story map. The exact form and complexity of a map depends, of course, upon the unique structure of each narrative and the personal preference of the teacher constructing the map.

Types of Narrative

There are many types of narrative. They can be imaginary, factual or a combination of both. They may include fairy stories, mysteries, science fiction, romances, horror stories, adventure stories, fables, myths and legends, historical narratives, ballads, slice of life, personal experience. Features

• Characters with defined personalities/identities.
• Dialogue often included - tense may change to the present or the future.
• Descriptive language to create images in the reader's mind and enhance the story.

Structure

In a Traditional Narrative the focus of the text is on a series of actions:

Orientation: (Introduction) in which the characters, setting and time of the story are established. Usually answers who? When? Where? E.g. Mr. Wolf went out hunting in the forest one dark gloomy night.

Complication or problem: The complication usually involves the main character(s) (often mirroring the complications in real life).

Resolution: There needs to be a resolution of the complication. The complication may be resolved for better or worse/happily or unhappily. Sometimes there are a number of complications that have to be resolved. These add and sustain interest and suspense for the reader.

Further more, when there is plan for writing narrative texts, the focus should be on the following characteristics:

• Plot: What is going to happen?
• Setting: Where will the story take place? When will the story take place?
• Characterization: Who are the main characters? What do they look like?
• Structure: How will the story begin? What will be the problem? How is the problem going to be resolved?
• Theme: What is the theme / message the writer is attempting to communicate?

 

Expository text type

It aims at explanation, i.e. the cognitive analysis and subsequent syntheses of complex facts. Example: An essay on "Rhetoric: What is it and why do we study it?"

 

Argumentative text type

Based on the evaluation and the subsequent subjective judgement in answer to a problem. It refers to the reasons advanced for or against a matter.

Poetic communication

(* autobiography
* biography
* diary
* drama
* essay
* novel
* novella
* poetry
* short story
* song lyric
* travel writing
//* cartoon//
//* parody//
//* pastiche//)

involves stimulating, inspiring, moving, shocking, entertaining or capturing the imagination of the audience. It is often characterized by literary features such as imagery, rhyme and narrative stucture, and has a finer relationship between form and meaning than many other types of communication. In this context, "poetic" should be understood in its broadest sense and refers to literart features rather than the poetic genre.

Mass communication

(* advertisement
* appeal
* brochure/leaflet
* editorial
* interview
* journalistic review
* letter to editor
* magazine article
* manifesto
* news report
* opinion column
* speech)

involves informing, persuading or entertaining the audience. It is often meant to be quickly understood and may be characterized by brevity, precision or stereotyped language. It is intended to appeal to a wide audience.

Professional communication

(* guide
* letter
* letter of application
* police statement
* report
* set of instructions or guidelines)

involves presenting, analysing or conveying factual information for a specific target audience. It is often characterized by formality of register, logic, detail and specific terminology.

Appeal

an address to an individual or a group in the hope of a favourable response. An appeal seeks to be attractive or acceptable.
(when you want people to donate money for example)

Editorial

an expression of the (impersonal) opinion of the editor or editorial team of a newspaper or magazine about a recent event or current issue.

Interview

a question-and-answer style dialogue. It may include a brief introduction to the interviewee, setting or circumstances of the interview.
For student production, an interview could be presented as a spoked or written text; if written, the text is the transcription of its spoken counterpart.

Journalistic review

a review of a book, film, television or radio programme that is suitable for inclusion in a newspaper or magazine. It is based on the author's experience and is subjective.

Magazine article

a non-fictional text written to inform readers about a particular subject or issue in some detail. It should not be confused with an exam-style essay or broad summary of a cultural option studied in class

Manifesto

a written, public and solemn declaration by any individuals or groups of public importance, in which they present a programe or justify their positions.

Opinion column

the part of a newspaper of journal devoted to the expresseion of journalists' or readers' opinions.

Parody

a humorous and/or exaggerated imitation of a literary work or style.

Pastiche

the imitation or recreation of an already published work. Students are expected to imitate the style and form of the original.
(only for written tasks)

Theses, dissertations

||Monographs

• Master theses
• Doctoral theses
• Senior contributions
• Course books

 

 

Text Linguistics

Lecture 4 (2 hours)

Text Linguistics

Lecture 1 (1 hour)

Theme: The emergence of text linguistics. The place of text linguistics among other scientific disciplines. Links of text linguistics with other branches of science. Directions of text linguistics development.

Aim: - to make an introduction of the subject, its aims and principles

    - to activate students’ to brainstorm on the questions

    - to provide a summary of key items

    - to link the students experience with learning

    - to make learning two-way process

 

Activity descriptions:

I. Speaking on the subject, its aims and principles, the object of investigation

II. Introduction of the list of basic and supplementary literature

III. Presentation of the themes of lectures, seminars, tutorials, individual work

IV. Presentation of the linguistic terms, notions, and the lecture

 

Questions for brainstorming:

1) What is text linguistics?

2) How do you define text linguistics?

3) What are the common reasons that text linguistics has become the study of research?

4) What is the relation of context to text?

5) What are the theoretical and practical importances of text linguistics?

6) What is the aim of text linguistics?

7) What are the main tasks or objectives of text linguistics?

8) Can you name any Western, Soviet and Home scholars who dealt with text linguistics?

9) What does text linguistics study?

10) What are the links of text linguistics with other branches of science?

11) What are the main directions of text linguistics development?

 

Problems to discuss:

- Definition of text linguistics

- Aim, objectives of text linguistics

- Directions of text linguistics development

- Links of text linguistics with other branches of science

 

The list of literature:

1. Валгина Н.С. Теория текста. Учебное пособие. Москва. Логос. 2003 г.

2. Тураева З.Я. Лингвистика текста. Москва «Просвещение» 1986 г.

3. ван Дейк Т.А. Язык. Познание. Коммуникация. Прогресс. 1989 г.

4. Филиппов К.А. Лингвистика текста. Курс лекций. Санкт-петербург. 2003 г.

5. Robert de Beaugrande and Wolfgang Dressler. Introduction to Text Linguistics. Longman. 1983

6. Brian Paltridge. Discourse Analysis. London. 2010

7. Barbara Johnstone. Discourse Analysis. USA. 2002

8. Selivanova E.A. The principles of the linguistic theory of the text and communication. – K.,2002

9. Tchirova I.A., Goncharova E.A. Multidimensionality of the text: understanding and interpretation. – S-Pb., 2007

10. Panchenko N.V. & al. Text theory. - M.,2010

11. Zimnaja I.A. Lingual psychology of speech activity.-M.-Voroneg, 2001

12. Kolshansky G.V. About linguistic method of text outcome// Linguistic questions-1983-No 3-P.44-51

13. Blokh M.Y. A Course in Theoretical English Grammar. – M., 2000. – p.229-236, 261-272

14. Гальперин И.Р. Текст как объект лингвистического исследования. М., 1981

15. Лотман Ю.М. Анализ художественного текста. – Л., 1972

 

1) Defining text linguistics

Let’s define text linguistics:

1) The most general definition of  Text linguistics is a branch of which studies the peculiarities of text structure.

2) In modern linguistic literature Text Linguistics (TL) is defined in different ways, for example, in “Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary” TL  is treated as “a trend of linguistic research that studies (1) the rules according to which it is possible to construct a coherent text and (2) textual categories that are expressed according to these rules.

3) ”T.M.Nikolaeva, suggested a different definition just some years before: “TL is a scientific discipline,  the aim of which is to find and to construct a system of textual categories with some specific meaningful and formal units, as well as to describe the conditions of “adequate” communication”.

4) This last definition of TL was suggested in 1978. In it we may trace great expectations of scholars and their belief in the   possibilities of a new linguistic trend rather than in already existing results though TL is qualified in it as a “ scientific discipline”.

           

A period of 12 years separates the two above presented definitions. No doubt, the definition of 1990 reflects the essence of linguistic analysis of a text in a more concise way.

5) In foreign scientific literature TL is defined in a similar way. Thus, H.Bussman in the dictionary of linguistic terms writes: “TL is linguistic discipline that deals with analysis of language regularities  that exceed the limits of the sentence. The objective of TL is to define the constituting features of a text as a language unit and in this way to foundations of the theory of a text”.

The common feature all above presented definitions is an attempt to single out a separate trend within linguistic, a trend that investigate speech unities and their fragment (parts, sections, units). The question whether speech unities/texts may be treated as language signs of real value equal to phonemes, morphemes, words and sentences, is solved differently in each separate case  depending on the scientific position of scholars.

6) Text linguistics is a branch of linguistics that deals with texts as communication systems. Its original aims lay in uncovering and describing text grammars. The application of text linguistics has, however, evolved from this approach to a point in which text is viewed in much broader terms that go beyond a mere extension of traditional grammar towards an entire text. Text linguistics takes into account the form of a text, but also its setting, i.e. the way in which it is situated in an interactional, communicative context. Both the author of a (written or spoken) text as well as its addressee are taken into consideration in their respective (social and/or institutional) roles in the specific communicative context. In general it is an application of linguistic analysis at the much broader level of text, rather than just a sentence or word.

7) In Metzler Lexikon Sprache, TL is defined as “a linguistic discipline, that studies structural peculiarities of texts, conditions of their production and interrelation, their language variability and processing” [Metzler 1993].

8) Text linguistics is an area of study within the linguistics field that focuses on the meaning and interpretation of written texts. This type of linguistics looks at ways in which the written word produces meaning, both on a small and large scale. Text linguistics is generally used by academics and is related to literary criticism. It grew out of structuralism in the 1960s.

9) TEXT LINGUISTICS is a branch of LINGUISTICS that deals with texts as communication systems. Its original aims lay in uncovering and describing text grammars. The application of text linguistics has, however, evolved from this approach to a point in which text is viewed in much broader terms that go beyond a mere extension of traditional grammar towards an entire text.

TEXT LINGUISTICS as a sub-branch of LINGUISTICS did not really develop until the early 1970s, until linguistics itself began to be less concerned with the SENTENCE as the prime unit of analysis; or at least until it began to be felt that some special discipline should take care of potential units larger than a sentence, or of intra-sentence relations. One major concern is the definition of TEXTUALITY; and also the classification or typology of texts according to their GENRE characteristics. Under the influence of PRAGMATICS and PSYCHOLOGY, more attention is being focused on the production or processing and reception of texts, and on their social function in society.

· Accordingly, TEXT LINGUISTICS can be defined as the study of text as a product (text grammar) or as a process (theory of text). The text-as-a-product approach is focused on the text cohesion, coherence, topical organization, illocutionary structure and communicative functions; the text-as-a-process approach studies the text production, reception and interpretation.

Contemporary text linguistics studies the text and its structure, its categories and components as well as ways of constructing texts. Text linguistics takes intoaccount the form of the text, but also its setting, i.e. the way in which it is situated in an interactional, communicative context. Both the author of a (written or spoken) text as well as its addressee are taken into consideration in their respective (social and/or institutonal) roles in the specific communicative context. In general it is an application of linguistic analysis at the much broader level of text, rather than just a sentence or word.

 TEXT LINGUISTICS study:

· The development of various paradigms for the study of how sentences interconnect. Text linguists have drawn attention to the various linguistic devices that can be used to ensure that a text "hangs together" (cf. the concept of textual cohesion). Such devices are called " cohesive devices or cohesive ties " and they include the use of lexical repetition, the use of articles, personal pronouns to refer back to entities mentioned earlier in a text and the use of linking words to establish a particular logical relationship of, say, contrast, concession or addition between two or more sentences in a text.

· The development of a typology of text types (esp. written text types). The most commonly known classification is that typological variation can be reduced to 5 functional types: argumentative texts, narrative texts, descriptive texts, expository texts and instructive texts. In some versions of this theory, the 5 types tend to be viewed as textualisation-strategies. It is possible to incorporate different parts from different text types which fall under different functional headings in one single text (for instance, a novel may consist of descriptive, narrative and argumentative episodes; a newspaper editorial is likely to contain narrative and argumentative parts).

· The study of textual sequencing which is concerned with how sentences functionally interrelate within particular rhetorical schemata (e.g. types of textual sequencing such as top-down and bottom-up methods of proceeding; an example of the former is a sequence consisting of a general claim > a specific application > listing arguments > giving examples; an example of a bottom-up way of proceeding is: an example > analysis > next example > analysis > a conclusion).

It seems quite natural to claim that “text” is the subject of TL as a science. Mykhailo Mykhailovych Bakhtin, defining the place of a text in the Humanities, wrote: “… we are interested in the peculiarities of linguistic thought, directed at the analysis of thoughts, implications and meanings characteristic of different people and realized only in the form of a text. No matter what the aims of investigation might be, only a text may be a starting point of any linguistic research. And further: “A text is a primary reality and a starting point any philological discipline”. Such evaluation of the role of a text for philological disciplines predetermines (calls for) the necessity of re-evaluation of the subject of linguistics proper.

Certainly, M. M. Bakhtin, speaking about the fundamental role of a text for philological reasoning, hardly meant the necessity to single out a special trend in linguistics, dealing with the analysis of big text fragments.

The most adequate definition of TL is that qualifying it as a science, studying “language in action”. M.A.K. Halliday also claims that “a text is language in action.

In his opinion, the speakers of a language should know the difference between a text and non-text (lists of words or any sets of sentences). For the speaker such knowledge is considered a norm, it is functional, because it is based not just on the recognition of words and structures, but on the understanding of the role a language plays in such situation. On the whole, language may be of some importance only if it meets the criteria of a text. In such wide understanding linguistics in general is viewed as TL.

When TL was in the process of its formation, the scholars did not mean to re-orient traditional linguistics. They aimed at a mere widening of the limits of scientific description of language phenomena. After decades of careful study of well-known structural language units they suddenly had to face new horizons of scientific interest. They went beyond the limits of a separate sentence and saw a new world of contextual relations and structural ties within the whole speech fragment.

The aim of text linguistics is to find and to construct a system of textual categories with some specific meaningful and formal units, as well as to describe the conditions of “adequate” communication”.

The objectives of text linguistics are to study the systematic description of a text; to describe text grammars; to study correlation of a text with context; to study structure, functions, categories of a text; to identify the functions of language units in text;

Our basic task in text linguistics is to study about a text itself, its types, textual categories, types of information in a text, text analysis, language units in a text, linguistic functions of a text, different modern approaches to text analysis or text study.

The main directions of text linguistics development:

1) study of texts as a system (connection, unity)

2) formation of text typology due to communicative criteria and linguistic features (expressiveness, content)

3) study of units which texts consist of

4) identification of main text categories

5) functioning of language units under the influence of texts

6) study of inner phrasal links and relations

7) study of internal and external parts/functions of a text

2) Urgent tasks of modern Text Linguistics

The author of one of the first Russian textbooks devoted to Text linguistics Z. Turaeva singles out several directions of modern linguistic text analysis. Actually, those are not directions, but particular tasks the scholars had to deal with since the science of TL appeared and which need further investigation in present days.

 

1.Study of a text as a system of a higher rank, the main characteristics of which are integrity and coherence. The solution of this problem presupposes recognition of the idea that a text is a certain complex speech unity, a structural-semantic formation, different from a simple sequence of sentences. This is a unity consolidated by communicative integrity, semantic completeness, logical, grammatical, and semantic links. The study of interrelations between surface and deep structures of a text is admitted to be the most promising trend of scientific research in this field.

 

2. Formation of typology of texts according to communicative parameters, and their correlative linguistic characteristics. The typological study of a text entails great difficulties connected with endless variations of the very object under analysis. Neverheless, the study of communicative, structural, and semantic peculiarities of a text allows, us to determine certain parameters of classification, separating one group of texts from another.

 

3. Study of units that form a text.

The process of characterizing units of a text division makes sense only in case when these units differ not only: in volume, but also in special qualities not reduced to a. mere total of elements that make them up. Such unit in TL is the complex syntactic unity or the supra-phrasal unity. With the introduction of the unit of a higher rank than a sentence the limits of syntactic, theory widen.

 

4. Determination of qualitative peculiarities of functioning of language units of different levels under the influence of a text as a result of their integration by a text. The ability to influence language units that make up a text is recognized as one of the peculiarities of a text as a structural-semantic unity. Under the influence of the text some new, additional meanings become realized in the elements that constitute the text. These (potential) meanings were characteristic of a given, element as a unit of language system and became active under the influence of a text, that is, they have transferred from the hidden, latent state to the open state. These new meanings may have appeared for the first time as a result of interaction of the given unit with the context.

 

5. Study of inter-phrasal links and relations. Examination of structural, semantic and other means of connection between the components of a text contributes to elaboration the syntax of complex speech structures. The realization of connections between complex integral sentences is often hidden from direct observation, and a deep penetration into the body of the text is necessary for their