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What are Genetically Modified Organisms?

Written By: C. Martin

Edited By: Andrew Jones

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are living things whose deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) has been changed by humans using the techniques of genetic engineering. The mechanism for creating a GMO is called the recombinant DNA technique. It involves combining strands of DNA from different sources to create a new DNA molecule that has a different combination of genes than that which occurs naturally. The newly created DNA is then inserted into a living organism or an egg or sperm, resulting in a genetically modified organism.

There are two classes of genetically modified organisms, cisgenic organisms and transgenic organisms. Cisgenic organisms are GMOs that result from the combination of different strands of DNA, which all originate from the same, or very similar, species. All of the DNA used in the process comes from organisms that are very closely related, usually defined as organisms that are able to breed together. For example, DNA might be taken from a variety of wild oat that has some beneficial trait, such as a resistance to a certain kind of pest. This DNA could then be spliced into the DNA of a cultivated variety of oat in order to produce a new strain with desirable traits from both varieties.

Transgenic organisms are genetically modified organisms that include DNA from two different species. Transgenic bacteria were the first microorganisms to be modified in the laboratory, due to their simple genetics and now are the most commonly created transgenic organisms. The simple DNA of bacteria lends itself to relatively straightforward recombinant DNA methods.

There are many examples of transgenic microorganisms that are used in a variety of applications. Certain bacteria are genetically engineered to produce insulin for the treatment of human diabetes. Other bacteria are engineered for the production of blood proteins to aid clotting for the treatment of hemophilia. In agriculture, some transgenic microbes are used to stimulate better crop growth, and to produce toxic chemicals that inhibit the proliferation of certain crop pests.

GMO research is often considered controversial for a number of reasons. Ethical issues aside, the creation of genetically modified organisms, and their introduction into the environment, can have unforeseen impacts. The growth of genetically modified crops in agriculture may lead to the spread of such genetically modified organisms into the wider environment, as it is difficult to completely isolate organisms in outdoor fields. Pollen from a genetically modified crop can, for example, easily cross wide-open spaces, and potentially cause the genetically modified plants being grown to be crossed with an existing organic species in a neighboring field.

Mark the following statements true or false. If the statement is false, correct it.

 

1. A GMO, or genetically modified organism, is a plant, animal, microorganism or other organism whose genetic makeup has been modified.                                                                              
2. Cisgenesis is used in order to produce a new DNA strain with desirable traits from one plant.
3. Transgenic plants are the most commonly created transgenic organisms.                     
4. Some genetically engineered bacteria are used to produce a specific hormone.
5. It is generally known that GMO usage is safe, healthy, and sustainable.

 

Find the English equivalents in the text.

 

1. рекомбинантная ДНК                           
2. генная инженерия                                 
3. нить ДНК                                               
4. генномодифицированный                   
5. белок

                                                     

Answer the questions.

1. What is the recombinant DNA technique?
2. What are two classes of genetically modified organisms?
3. What is the reason why bacteria became the first transgenic microorganisms?
4. What are the applications of genetically modified microorganisms nowadays?  
5. What are the negative consequences of using GMO?

 

Grammar tasks.

 

Writing

 

10. Write an essay on the topic “Ethical problems of euthanasia” in 200-250 words.

 

Variant 2

Text work

Answer the questions

 

1. How long have humans modified plants?
2. What are the pros of genetically modified foods?
3. What are the cons of genetically modified foods?
4. Why is it hard to assert that GM foods are completely safe for humans?
5. What ecological damage can be caused be GM plants?

 

Grammar tasks.

 

Writing

 

10. Write an essay on the topic “Ethical issues of surrogacy” in 150-200 words.

 

Variant 3

Text work

Pro: Similarity to Humans

With the advent of modern molecular biology and its analytical methods, scientists can now quantify the precise extent to which humans resemble other animals, genetically speaking. Chimpanzees and humans share 99 percent of their DNA, and even mice and humans have a 98 percent overlap in this area. All mammals have the same essential internal organs, and these all fall victim to the same general maladies, such as heart disease and various cancers. For these reasons, scientists can confidently apply the results of medical experiments on animals to human beings and be more confident when it's time to experiment on humans directly in clinical trials.

Con: Lack of Applicability

One of the leading arguments against animal testing is that it is simply a waste of scientific energy and resources, because the results of tests done on other species often cannot be reliably extrapolated to humans. The anatomic, metabolic, and cellular differences between animals and people make animals poor models for human beings. For example, in a study at the Mayo Clinic by David Wiebers and his colleagues aimed at identifying drugs to treat ischemic stroke, the researchers found that 25 compounds that reduced the damage done by such events in cats, rodents and other animals had no beneficial effect whatsoever in people. And according to cell biologist Robin Lovell-Badge of the MRC National Institute for Medical Research in London, 94 percent of drugs that passed tests in animals failed in people.

Alternatives

As technology moves forward, there is less and less need for animal experimentation. Human genes cloned into microorganisms can yield more specific toxicology results, for example, than simply administering toxins to animals. While much scientific research cannot be adequately done without animals, commercial safety testing, such as by cosmetics companies, is increasingly being done without the use of animals. Meanwhile, improving the well-being of laboratory animals, such as providing an "enriched environment" for rats rather than keeping them isolated in traditional lab cages, can do much to ease the suffering of animals used in research.

Answer the questions.

 

1. What is animal testing?
2. What advances in medicine have been made due to animal testing?
3. What is the purpose of tests in which animals are burnt and wounded?
4. Why is it possible to apply the results of medical experiments on animals to human beings?
5. What are the alternatives to animal testing?

 

 

Grammar tasks.

 

Writing

 

10. Write an essay on the topic “Frankenfood” in 200-250 words.

 

Variant 4

Text work

Answer the questions.

 

1. Why do some consumers seek out cruelty free products?
2. Why do cosmetic companies test their products on animals?
3. What do animal rights organizations do on the issue of animal testing?
4. What additional measures aimed at sustainability are taken by some companies that produce cruelty free products
5. Why is it essential to educate consumers on the issue of cruelty free products?

 

 

Grammar tasks.

 

Writing

 

10. Write an essay on the topic “GMO microorganisms” in 200-250 words.

 

Variant 5

Text work

What is Mercy Killing?

Originally Written By: Lori Smith and N. Madison

Mercy killing, also known as voluntary euthanasia or physician-assisted suicide, is essentially an act by one person that is designed to end the life of another who is suffering from extreme pain or terminally ill; who is on life support machines or who is only living with the support of ventilation or other medical interventions. It is considered a criminal homicide in most but not all places, though proponents argue that it should be treated differently than a malicious murder because, in general, it is done out of love or compassion for the person killed. The practice is highly controversial and polarizing, even in places where it is permitted by law.

There are a couple of different ways people help others die, but lethal drug overdoses are some of the most common. In these cases doctors prescribe drugs in strengths and combinations that are designed to quickly and peacefully end someone’s life. People who are able can self-administer these drugs, usually by swallowing them, or they may have them injected intravenously, too.

Ending medically necessary life support is called passive euthanasia. People who depend on ventilators or life support machines can request that these machines be switched off, which usually leads to relatively quick death. Family members and loved ones of patients in such situations sometimes choose to remove life support mechanisms on their own, too, often if the patient is unconscious or non-responsive and not expected to ever recover.

There are few topics that are more controversial than assisted suicide, and there are passionate arguments for both sides of this issue. Proponents of assisted suicide often state that a person has a right to end his life if he is in severe pain or unable to experience a reasonable quality of life. They further state that he has the right to seek help in ending his life as well, arguing that euthanasia doesn’t harm anyone. Some even call it cruel to force a person to live the rest of his days in pain or unable to move or function. As such, proponents often consider it an act of kindness to help such patients die.

There are also many arguments against assisted suicide. Often, these arguments are religious in nature. Many opponents of mercy killing say it is against God; others claim it is outright murder. Some people who are against euthanasia state that it leaves too much room for mistakes. For example, they say that assisted suicide may lead to the deaths of individuals who were incorrectly diagnosed or had some chance, no matter how remote, of recovering.

Often, the arguments against assisted suicide focus on where society should draw the line in deciding who should die and what conditions make a person a good candidate for mercy killing. They question whether society would eventually force euthanasia on people who were considered less desirable or who had non-fatal, but debilitating conditions. Additionally, many argue that life is sacred and that mercy killing will make people have less respect for it.

Despite the fact that there are people who support assisted suicide, it is illegal in many places around the world except such countries as Switzerland, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg which have established provisions for lawful euthanasia; but it is generally illegal for anyone other than a doctor to actually administer the life-ending treatments, though others can often be present. Laws in some places specify that only people with certain illnesses or pain conditions are eligible, too.

Answer the questions.

 

1. What conditions are considered sufficient to apply euthanasia?
2. What are the ways of committing an assisted suicide?
3. What are the arguments for mercy killing?
4. What are the arguments against assisted suicide?
5. What is illegal about euthanasia in different countries?

 

 

Grammar tasks.

Writing

 

10. Write an essay on the topic “The alternatives to animal testing” in 200-250 words.

 

Text work

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