Complete the following sentences with details from the Text.

1. Master’s degree programmes usually include ____________.

2. The degree of an academic doctorate is called ___________.

3. Examinations are required to test _____________________.

4. Typically a doctorate degree takes ___________ to complete.

5. __________________ is earned after obtaining a PhD degree.

6. The first stage research degree in Russia is ______________.

7. The second stage research degree in Russia is ___________

Find the following details in the Text.

1. In which lines does the author explain the meaning of the term

philosophy in the context of academic degrees?

2. Where in the Text does the author first mention the requirements

for Doctoral degree programmes?

3. Where in the Text does the author discuss what doctoral students

are expected to demonstrate to be awarded a PhD degree?

4. At what point in the Text does the author discuss the level of

scholarship required for habilitation?

5. In which lines does the author explain the equivalence of Russian

postgraduate degrees to the ones recognized internationally?

Correct the information if needed.

1. Postgraduate education includes Bachelor’s degrees, Master’s degrees, and Doctor’s degrees.

2. Doctoral degree programmes require students to pass a qualifying examination, a comprehensive examination, a special field examination, and a PhD candidacy examination.

3. Habilitation qualification exists in France, Austria, Denmark, Bulgaria, Great Britain, Poland, Russia and other countries.

Give the main idea of the text.

Приложение 2

CLASSIFICATIONS OF LAW

In order to understand the many different aspects of law it is helpful to look at the various areas or classifications of law. There are many legal principles or rules of law that are found in statutes, cases decided by courts, and other sources that are applied by the courts in order to decide lawsuits, and these rules or principles of law are classified as substantive law. On the other hand, the legal procedures that provide how a lawsuit is begun, how the trial is conducted, how appeals are taken, and how a judgment is enforced are called procedural law. In other words, substantive law is that part of the law that defines rights, and procedural law establishes the procedures whereby rights are enforced and protected. For example, A and В have entered into an agreement, and A claims that В has breached the agreement. The rules that provide for bringing В into court and for the conduct of the trial are rather mechanical and they constitute procedural law. Whether the agreement was enforceable and whether A is entitled to damages are matters of substance and would be determined on the basis of the substantive law of contracts.

Law is also frequently classified into areas of public and private law. Public law includes those bodies of law that affect the public generally; private law includes the areas of the law that are concerned with the relationship between individuals.

Public law may be divided into three general categories: constitutional law, which concerns itself with the rights, powers, and duties of federal and state governments under the U.S. Constitution and the constitutions of the various states; administrative law, which is concerned with the multitude of administrative agencies, such as the Interstate Commerce Commission, the Federal Trade Commission, and the National Labor Relations Board; and criminal law, which consists of statutes and general maxims that forbid certain conduct as being detrimental to the welfare of the state or society generally and provides punishment for violations of these laws.

Private law is that body of law that pertains to the relationships between individuals in an organized society. Private law encompasses the subjects of contracts, torts, and property. Each of these subjects includes several bodies of law. For example, the law of contracts may be subdivided into the subjects of sales, commercial paper, agency, and business organizations. The major portion of this text covers these subjects, which constitute the body of law usually referred to as business law.

The law of torts is the primary source of litigation in the country and is also a part of the total body of law in such areas as agency and sales. A tort is a wrong committed by one person against another or his property. The law of torts is predicated upon the premise that in a civilized society people who injure other persons of their property should compensate them for their loss.

The law of property may be thought of as a branch of the law of contracts, but in many ways our concept of private property contains much more than the contract characteristics. Property is the basic ingredient in our economic system, and the subject matter may be subdivided into several areas such as wills, trusts, estates in land, personal property, bailments, and many more.

 

Приложение 3

EFFECTIVE LAWYER

If you want to be an effective lawyer, you should have certain traits and attributes in order to excel in this occupation. One important trait which lawyers should possess is that of articulation. A lawyer who can articulate effectively is the one who will be more likely to succeed not only against opposing parties in court but also to impress and put their client at ease as well. An articulate lawyer is the one who will see results.

Another trait which lawyers should have is intelligence. Having this positive attribute will ensure that the person representing the client is the one who is smart enough to know what to do, when to do it and how to go about getting the results which are necessary to win the case and/or abide by the client’s wishes.

Lawyers who use their brains are more likely to see the best possible outcome from a case. It can arguably be said that those who become lawyers are individuals who like to read. The legal profession is filled with volumes of laws, regulations, cases and rules. If one does not favour reading, then becoming a lawyer may not be the best bet, as the legal field is the one which requires massive amounts of reading. Good comprehension skills are a favourable trait which all lawyers should have.

Although the one who likes to read may be a candidate for the legal profession, but reading means nothing if the person does not comprehend what he has just read. Statutes and procedural rules are sometimes difficult to understand and those who have good comprehension skills may prosper at being a lawyer as they will have to read the pertinent documentation much less than those without good comprehension skills. A good personality and willingness to work well with others are two additional positive traits which all lawyers should possess.

Some people may think that lawyers have to be tough as nails in order to excel in the legal profession but this is not entirely true. Although steadfast determination is a good trait to have, it does not mean a whole lot if the one does not have a good personality and willingness to resolve matters.

The saying that one can catch more flies with honey than vinegar is also relevant with regard to being a lawyer. Negotiations go much better when the lawyers put their best foot forward and are willing to come to an amicable solution. Lastly, persuasiveness is an additional trait which all lawyers should possess. Since the legal profession is based around lawyers persuading individuals to see their point of view lawyers must be persuasive in their speech and tactics. A lawyer who can get his point across and persuade individuals to acknowledge it is the one who will see many victories.

Приложение 4

The Internet

 

Last years the classical function of libraries has been more and more superseded by various electronic information systems which enable exchange, acquisition and transmission of information, searching, processing and storage of data and reviewing and lending of library material. As to their resources and unlimited access, no classical library at present can be compared with their capabilities of providing information. Generally speaking Internet is a global library. However, it is well known that it enables several different services, such as e-mail and access to distant computers and networks. So far, e-mail has been a significant factor in all areas of the Internet. Users of the Internet may search for various data, exchange information and communicate with the other users of Internet primarily by means of search engines such as Excite, Magellan, Point, Income, Alta Vista, InfoSeek, Lycos, Open Text Index, WebCrawler, Yahoo, etc.

 

Find the equivalents in the text:

1) заменяется различными электронно-информационными системами;

2) накопление и передача информации; 3) поиск, обработка и хранение данных;

4) неограниченный доступ;

5) способность обеспечивать информацией;

6) вообще говоря;

7) до сих пор, пока это.

 

Answer the questions:

1. How has the classical function of libraries been changed?

2. What services does Internet enable?

3. What may users of Internet search?
Приложение 5

 

The Internet is the latest jewel in the crown of information technology. Also known as the information super-highway, it is an international infrastructure used for data communication which is becoming as popular and relied upon as the telephone. The important characteristic of the Internet is its speed of information flow. Hence e-mail (electronic mail) travels much faster and is thus much preferred than traditional paper mail (also known as snail-mail). E-mail is also beginning to replace many phone calls. This is because e-mail allows the senders the ability to edit information before they post it. Also, e-mail allows the receiver to answer at their own leisure time.

Another beneficial feature of the Internet is that being supported mostly by academic and nonprofit organizations, the information is free (after an initial connection fee). This means that this technology is not greatly restricted to or dominated by any particular economic class. In fact, the huge amount of competition between the Internet service providers means that the costs related to net-usage are even beginning to decline. The fact that the information is free to the end-user has also sparked a great deal of commercial interest. Many companies are investing time and money into net-advertisements. They hope that their free promotional material can tap into the new consumer market of the computer-user. The Internet is also beginning to replace libraries as sources of research information. This is because it is current, very generalized for public consumption. The net is also better than libraries for educational reasons. Its interactive nature encourages and motivates students more into learning. The only draw-back is that the information is not as reliable and there are often difficulties in accessing and collecting electronic information, e.g. the crashing of computer servers.