The Subjunctive Mood (сослагательное наклонение)

Сослагательное наклонение показывает, что говорящий рассматривает действие не как реальный факт, а как желательное, предполагаемое, условное или возможное. В русском языке для выражения сослагательного наклонения употребляется глагол в прошедшем врeмени в сочетании с частицей бы.

Мы могли бы сходить на выставку, если бы не твой экзамен.

В английском языке сослагательное наклонение выражается как простыми, так и сложными формами:

a) неизменяемой основой глагола, формами глаголов в Past Simple и Past Perfect;

b) глаголами should, would, could, might в сочетании с простой или перфектной формой инфинитива.

В сослагательном наклонении в прошедшем времени глагол to be имеет форму were для всех лиц.

Сослагательное наклонение употребляется в следующих типах предложений:

1. В простых предложениях при подразумеваемом нереальном условии:

а) если действие относится к настоящему или будущему времени, то употребляется should / would + Simple Infi nitive

e.g. You would be very unhappy with her. – Ты был бы очень несчастлив с нею.

b) если действие относится к прошедшему времени, то употребляется should / would + Perfect Infi nitive

e.g. Twenty years ago I wouldn’t have thought it possible. – Двадцать лет тому назад я бы не подумал, что такое возможно.

Вместо глаголов should / would в таких предложениях можно использовать модальные глаголы could или might.

e.g. I didn’t know about the concert. I might have got tickets for it. –

Я ничего не знал про концерт. Я бы, может быть, достал на него билет.

2. В предложениях, начинающихся с if only (если бы):

а) если действие относится к настоящему времени, то употребляется Past Simple

e.g. If only I knew what to do! – Если бы я знал, что мне делать!

b) если действие относится к прошедшему времени, то употребляется Past Perfect

e.g. If only he had listened to me! – Если бы он только меня послушал!

3. В придаточных предложениях подлежащих, вводимых союзом that, после безличных оборотов типа it is(was) necessary (необходимо), it is(was) important (важно), it is(was) strange (странно) и т.п.

В таких предложениях используется should + Simple Infi nitive или неизменяемая основа глагола.

e.g. It is necessary that you go (should go) there tomorrow. – Необходимо, чтобы ты поехал туда завтра.

4. В дополнительных придаточных предложениях после глагола wish:

а) если действие относится к настоящему времени, то употребляется Past Simple

e.g. I wish you wore a warm coat. – Как жаль, что ты не в теплом пальто.

b) если действие относится к будущему времени, то употребляется сould / would + Simple Infi nitive

e.g. I wish he could come to the party. – Жаль, что он не сможет прийти на вечер. (Мне бы хотелось, чтобы он пришел на вечер.)

c) если действие относится к прошедшему времени, то употребляется Past Perfect

e.g. I wish you had seen the show from the very beginning. – Жаль, что ты не видел шоу с самого начала.

Предложения с глаголом wish часто соответствуют русским предложениям, выражающим сожаление (Как жаль, что … или Мне жаль, что … и т.д.). При этом действие переводится на русский язык отрицательным, если на английском языке оно было утвердительным, и наоборот.

5. В сложноподчиненных предложениях с придаточным нереального условия:

а) если действие относится к настоящему или будущему времени, то в главном предложении употребляется should / would + Simple Infinitive, а в придаточном – Past Simple.

e.g. We should go to the country if we had a car. – Мы бы поехали за город, если бы у нас была машина.

b) если действие относится к прошедшему времени, то в главном предложении употребляется should / would + Perfect Infi nitive, а в придаточном – Past Perfect.

e.g. I should not have come if he hadn’t phoned me. – Я бы не пришел, если бы он не позвонил мне.

Grammar Exercises

5. Analyse the use of the Subjunctive Mood in the sentences. Translate them into Russian.

1. I wish it weren’t true.

2. Carol would have come to the party if she had been invited.

3. I wish I had my children with me. It’s such a lovely place.

4. If only Roger had learned the news yesterday!

5. If I didn’t call my parents every other day, they would start worrying.

6. If Jane were more friendly, she wouldn’t be always alone.

7. It would be wise of you to book tickets now. You could save a lot of time next Saturday before the departure.

8. I should never have recognized him. He has changed a lot.

6. Find the Subjunctive Mood in the following dialogues:

Teacher: Tom, your hands are very dirty. What would you say if I came to school with dirty hands?

Tom: I should be too polite to mention it, sir.

***

Neighbour: What makes the new baby in your house cry so much, Tommy?

Tom: It doesn’t cry so much. And anyway if your teeth were all out, your hair off and your feet so weak that you couldn’t stand on them, I think you would feel like crying.

***

An American lady travelling in England got into a compartment of a smoking carriage where an Englishman was smoking a pipe.

American lady: If you were a gentleman, you would stop smoking when a lady got into the carriage.

Englishman: If you were a lady, you wouldn’t get into a smoking carriage.

American lady: If you were my husband, I should give you poison.

Englishman: Well, if I were your husband, I should take it.

7. A few weeks ago Chris Taylor took part in a prize competition for a crossword puzzle in a magazine. A month later he bought the next number of the magazine and looked for the names of the winners. He could not believe his eyes: “First prize Ј250,000: Chris Taylor”!

What would you do if you won Ј250,000 in a competition? There are so many things you could do with it.

Write sentences in your exercise- book. Begin like this:

I would buy/get…

I might go to/travel …

I could give/lend…

8. Complete the following sentences using the prompts in brackets.

1. If only my parents …..(to be not so strict).

2. If only my teachers at school …..(to give only good marks).

3. If only I …..(can sleep longer).

4. If only the weather …..(to be not rainy).

5. If only people all over the world …. (to be more patient to each other).

9. Look at the pictures below and say what the characters might think.

Use the prompts in brackets. Begin your sentences with “I wish…”.

10. Chain game. Complete the story as given in the example.

e.g. If it were summer now ….

Student 1 If it were summer now, I should go to the seaside.

Student 2 If I went to the seaside, I should lie on the beach all day long.

Student 3 If I lay on the beach all day long …….

1. If I won a yacht …

2. If I were a journalist …

3. If I had more patience …

4. If I knew many languages …

11. Change the sentences as given in the example.

e.g. Tony drove his car so dangerously that he ran into two parked cars.

If Tony had not driven his car so dangerously, he would not have run into two parked cars.

1. Mrs. Crane missed the train. Her watch was wrong.

2. Mr. Green felt awful. He ate too much at a party.

3. Mr. Black had an accident because he was so tired.

4. Julie wanted to learn Spanish, but she did not have enough time.

5. George went for an interview for a job at the bank and wore an old

pullover and jeans. He did not get the job.

6. Mr. Eagle worked so hard that he was not able to sleep properly.

12. What do you think …

e.g. … when you get bad marks?

If only I had worked harder, I would have got better marks.

1. … when you get wet in the rain?

2. … when you forget someone’s telephone number?

3. … when you lose your ticket for a pop concert?

4. … when you have a bad cold?

5. … when you feel sick after a big meal?

6. … when you haven’t got enough money for a train journey?

 

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

(Прямая и косвенная речь)

Содержание ранее высказанного сообщения можно передать прямой речью (от лица говорящего) или косвенной речью (от лица передающего).

e.g. She said: “I can speak two foreign languages” (прямая речь).

She said that she could speak two foreign languages (косвенная речь).

В косвенной речи соблюдается правило согласования времен.

Правило согласования времен в английском языке представляет определённую зависимость времен глагола в придаточном предложении (главным образом дополнительном) от времени глагола в главном предложении. Основные положения согласования времен сводятся к следующему:

1. Если сказуемое главного предложения выражено глаголом в настоящем или будущем времени, то сказуемое придаточного предложения может стоять в любом времени, которое требуется по смыслу.

e.g.

he studies English.

He says (that) he will study English.

he has studied English.

изучает английский язык.

Он говорит, что будет изучать английский язык.

изучал английский язык.

2. Если сказуемое главного предложения стоит в прошедшем времени, то сказуемое придаточного предложения должно стоять в одном из прошедших времен. Выбор конкретной видо-временной формы определяется тем, происходит ли действие в придаточном предложении одновременно с главным, предшествует ему либо будет происходить в будущем.

e.g.

He said (that)

he worked (was working)

he had worked

he would work (would be working)

работает

работал

будет работать

При обращении утвердительных предложений из прямой речи в косвенную производятся следующие изменения:

1. Повествовательные предложения в косвенной речи вводятся союзом that, который часто опускается.

2. Глагол to say, после которого следует дополнение, заменяется глаголом to tell.

3. Личные, притяжательные местоимения заменяются по смыслу.

4. Времена глаголов в придаточном предложении изменяются согласно правилам согласования времён.

5. Указательные местоимения и наречия времени и места заменяются другими словами.

Sequence of Tenses (Согласование времен)

e.g. 1. Jim said: “I want to go to Cambridge”.

Jim said that he wanted to go to Cambridge.

Eddy said: “It’s an easy way to earn the money”.

Eddy said that it was an easy way to earn the money.

3. Frank said: “I am going into my father’s offi ce”.

Frank said that he was going into his father’s offi ce.

Remember

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

Present Indefinite Past Indefinite

Present Continuous Past Continuous

Present Perfect Past Perfect

Past Indefi nite Past Perfect

shall should

will would

can could

may might

this that

these those

here there

now then

yesterday the day before

tomorrow the following day

ago before

last week the week before

next the next/the following

Grammar Exercises

4. Choose the right word in brackets. Translate the sentences into Russian.

1. When Jack came home, his sister told him that Peter had rung him up half an hour (ago, before).

2. “Did you work or were you still going to school two years (ago, before)?” – the teacher asked one of the students.

3. Last week I asked my friend to translate this article, but he said he couldn’t do it (now, then) and said he would do it (in two days, two days later).

4. My friend spent his last week-end in the country. He said the weather was fi ne (today, that day).

5. I gave my friend a book last week and he said he would return it (tomorrow, the following day), but he hasn’t done so yet.

6. “Are you going to give a talk (tomorrow, the following day)?” – my friend asked me.

5. A by-election is being held in Pudley, and yesterday afternoon two Liberal activists, Shirley Thorpe and Cyril Meadowcroft, went from house to house, knocking on every door and trying to persuade everybody to vote for the Liberal candidate. Read what the voters said and put the voters’ comments into reported speech.

e.g. Mr. Anderson: “I always vote Labour”.

Mr. Anderson told Cyril and Shirley that he always voted Labour.

Mr. Ferguson: «I’m defi nitely voting Liberal».

Mr. McAllister: «Your party has never helped the working class».

Mrs. Sherwood: «I’ve just joined the Conservative Party, young lady».

Mrs. Ainsworth: «I voted for your party last time, but the Conservative candidate won».

Mr. Hoolihan: «I read your leafl et recently and I agree with your policies».

Mr. Jenkinson: «I knew your candidate’s grandfather, my dear».

Mr. Armstrong: «My wife and I are going to vote Labour».

Mr. Bradbury: «Yes, I’ll vote for your candidate».

6. Give the exact words of the speaker in the following sentences, i.e.

(то есть) turn them from Indirect Speech into Direct Speech. Don’t forget the quotation marks.

1. Pete said that he was staying in England for another year.

2. Sam said that his friend was a painter.

3. My father said that I could go to Canada for a year or two.

4. Kate said that her father did a lot of business with Japan.

5. Pedro said that he wanted to go to Oxford.

6. Jan said that he had enjoyed his holiday in Switzerland.

7. I said that I would try my best.

8. Lucille said she was going to drive her friend’s car.__

Word – Order in Indirect Questions

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

e.g. 1. Andrew (to the shopkeeper): How much is that bicycle?

1. Andrew asked how much that bicycle was.

2. Jack said: “How long does it take to get from Paris to London?”

2. Jack asked Fred how long it took to get from Paris to London.

3. Dick said: “When will you get back from Paris, Jess?

3. Dick asked Jess when she would get back from Paris.

4. Jack said: ”Can you swim, Andrew?”

4. Jack asked Andrew if he could swim.

5. Jane (to Mr. Priestley): “Shall I fi nish my exercise at home?”

5. Jane asked Mr. Priestley if she should fi nish her exercise at home.

6. Sally (to her husband): “Do you like my new dress?”

6. Sally asked her husband if he liked her new dress.

7. Some visitors are looking round a carpet factory near Salisbury. As some of the machines are rather noisy, they’ve got to keep repeating their questions.

e.g. – (Visitor) This is the biggest factory of its kind, isn’t it?

– (Guide) Sorry? Could you repeat that, please?

– (Visitor) I asked you if this was the biggest factory of its kind.

1. – How old are these machines?

– Sorry?

– I asked you ….

2. – Do you sell a lot of carpets abroad?

– What was that?

– I wondered….

3. – Have you got more male or female employees?

– Pardon?

– I wanted to know ….

4. – Will we get a chance to talk to some of your employees?

– I beg your pardon?

– I ….

5. – How long have you yourself worked here?

– Could you say that again?

– I ….

6. – Shall I close this door?

– I beg your pardon?

– I ….

7. – May I touch this wool?

– Could you repeat that, please?

– I ….

8. Give the exact words of the speaker in the following sentences, i.e. turn them from Indirect Speech into Direct Speech. Don’t forget the quotation marks.

1. Margaret asked where Sally had gone.

2. Andrew said he had seen her in the garden.

3. Freda asked how much my new skirt cost.

4. I asked if I might have some more chocolate.

5. Helen asked Mr. White when he was leaving England.

9. Choose the right word in brackets.

1. Do you know (that, what) they’re discussing?

2. I can’t say (that, what) I liked the book very much.

3. I’ve heard (that, what) Peter is coming back soon.

4. Have you heard (that, what) they decided to do?

5. My friend has told me (that, what) his mother’s ill.

6. I’m telling you (that, what) you should do.

Commands, Irritations, Requests, Advice, Suggestions in Indirect Speech

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

e.g. 1. Go out and speak to him. 1. I was ordered to go out and speak to him.

2. Offi cer to soldiers: “Fire!” 2. The offi cer commanded the soldiers to fi re.

3. Teacher (to his class): 3. The teacher told his class “Don’t waste your time?” not to waste their time.

4. Farmer (to visitors): 4. The farmer asked the

“Please don’t leave the gate open.” visitors not to leave the gate open.

5. Would you like to join us, 5. We asked Peter whether (if) Peter? he would like to join us.

10. Neil Sinclair, who keeps a diary, is making a note of some of the things people said to him yesterday. Imagine you are Neil. Write the diary entries, using reported speech. Make use of the verbs in brackets.

e.g. Our neighbours: “Won’t you and Clare come to dinner on Friday?” (invite – have)

Our neighbours invited Clare and me to have dinner with them on Friday.

1. My assistant: “There’s an article in the “Financial Times’ that I think you should look at, Neil.” (advice – read)

2. The Managing Director: “Bring me the new plans as soon as possible, Neil.” (tell – show)

3. The Sales Manager: “Shall we talk about the new advertising campaign over lunch?” (suggest – discuss)

4. The Marketing Director: “There’s an exhibition in Detroit and I’d like you to be there.” (ask – attend)

5. The Personnel Manager: “Would you like a bigger desk?” (offer –take)

6. My doctor: “Get more exercise, Neil.” (order – get)

11. Here is a short story containing Direct Statements, Questions and

Commands. Rewrite it in Indirect Speech. Call the ant “he” and the grasshopper “she”.

It is a cold winter day and an ant is bringing out some grains of corn that he had gathered in the summer as he wants to dry them. A grasshopper, who is very hungry, sees him and says,

“Give me a few grains of corn. I am dying of hunger.”

“But,” says the ant, “what did you do in the summer? Didn’t you store up some corn?”

“No,” replies the grasshopper, “I was too busy.”

“What did you do?” says the ant.

“I sang all day,” answers the grasshopper.

“If you sang all summer,” says the ant, “you can dance all winter.”

12. Change direct speech into reported speech and fi ll in the missing forms.

1. John: «I play tennis once a week». A few minutes ago John said that … played tennis once a week.

2. Jill: «I haven’t seen my brother for ten months». Jill mentioned that she … her brother for ten months.

3. David: «The journey may be very dangerous». David remarked that the journey … very dangerous.

4. «Do you like swimming?» Bob asked the girl. Bob asked the girl … swimming.

5. Mrs. Drawson to Jean: «Call a doctor quickly». Mrs. Drawson told Jean … a doctor quickly.

6. Debbie (on Tuesday): «I bought a new bike yesterday».

Liz (on the following Wednesday): «Debbie told me yesterday that she’d bought a new bike ….»

 

 

ADDITIONAL RADING

From the History of Agriculture

 

1. Study the agricultural terms before reading the text "From The His­tory of Agriculture".

seed [si:d] - семя, зерно

domestication - одомашнивание, приручение

irrigation [lrl'geljn] - орошение

crop rotation - севооборот

selective breeding - селекционное разведение

milking machine - доильный аппарат

pump - насос

feeding trough [trofj - кормушка insect pest - насекомое-вредитель wood ash - древесная зола manure [ma'njua] - навоз

2. Read the text and do the exercises that follow it.

For hundreds of thousands of years, prehistoric people lived by hunting, fishing and gathering wild plants. Then about 8000 B.C. (before Christ - до нашей эры), people took the first steps toward agriculture. Some tribes discovered that plants could be grown from seeds. They also learned that certain animals could be tamed and then raised in captivity. These two discoveries marked the beginning of the domestication of plants and ani­mals. Scholars believe that domestication began in the Middle East and then spread to surrounding areas.

The Romans had developed some farming methods, e.g. systems of crop rotation. The selective breeding of plants and livestock began in Eu­rope during Roman times, too.

Since the 1800s, science and technology have helped make agriculture more and more productive in three main ways. They have provided farm­ers with labor-saving technologies, produced improved plant varieties and breeds of livestock and developed new agricultural chemicals.

Labor-saving technologies. Steam-powered tractors were developed in the mid-1800s, but they were expensive and difficult to operate. The first all-purpose gasoline-powered tractors appeared in the 1920s. They gradually replaced work animals and steam-powered machines on almost all farms. In Japan and several European countries most farms had electric power service by the mid-1930s. Today farmers use electric motors to run milking machines, irrigation pumps, and many other farm machines. Farm­ers also use electric power to operate electronic and automated equipment. This equipment includes devices that fill feeding troughs or collect and grade eggs automatically.

Many farmers use computers to aid in farm operations. Using the In­ternet, farmers may make use of data provided by agricultural colleges or other information centers.

Plant and livestock breeding. During the mid-1800s an Austrian bota­nist and monk named Gregor Mendel discovered the principles of heredity. Mendel thus laid the groundwork for genetics - the science that explains how characteristics are inherited. The development of genetics has made it possible to breed plants and animals scientifically.

Since the early 1900s, plant breeders have developed a great number of hybrid crops that produced unusually high yields. The new varieties were intended mainly to help various poor nations, such as India and Mexico, increase their food supply. This effort proved so successful that it has been called the Green Revolution.

Livestock breeders have introduced many improved lines since the ear­ly 1900s. Nutrition specialists have developed better livestock feeds, and veterinarians have improved methods of health care. All these advances continue to make livestock more and more productive.

Agricultural chemicals. Almost since the beginning of agriculture, farmers have used various substances to enrich the soil and to kill insect pests. For example, they have used wood ash and manure as fertilizers since prehistoric times. Since the beginning of modern chemistry in the late 1700s, scientists have produced many kinds of synthetic chemicals for use in agriculture. These chemicals include fertilizers, insecticides, herbi­cides or weedkillers and chemicals to control plant and animal diseases. All these chemicals have helped increase farm production greatly. However, improper or excessive use of these chemicals can be dangerous and cause damage to the environment. In many countries state laws limit such prac­tices and prohibit the use of chemicals that have been proved harmful.

3. Define which verb goes with which noun.

develop	soil
inherit	methods
enrich	data
provide	diseases
control	troughs
fill	production
improve	groundwork
run	hybrids
lay	machines
increase	damage
operate	characteristics
cause	equipment

 

4. Define whether the following statements are true or false. Correct the false ones.

1. In the 20^th century gasoline-powered tractors replaced steam-pow­ered tractors.

2. Most farms in Europe had electric power service by the early 1920s.

3. Today electric motors are widely used on the farms.

4. Gregor Mendel invented the first automatic milking machine.

5. Geneticists work on breeding new crops and animals.

6. The Green Revolution was the exploration of new farming areas in India and Mexico.

7. Veterinarians are the specialists who develop livestock feeds.

8. Today there are various types of chemicals used on the farms.

9. There is no limit in using all kinds of agricultural chemicals, as they are friendly to the environment.

5. Prove that:

• agriculture is the world's most important industry

• farms provide almost all the world's food

• farms supply many industries with raw materials

 

6. Talk in pairs (in groups) about the history of agriculture. Discuss the following:

• domestication of plants and animals

• labour-saving technologies

• plant and livestock breeding

• agricultural chemicals

 

DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Agriculture is one of the economic sectors to have made the least recovery from the economic turmoil of the 1990s. According to the Russian Ministry of Agriculture sixty-three percent of the agricultural land in use in 1993 is dormant today. So having 10% of the World’s plough-land and 50% of the World’s chernozem, Russia still imports half of agricultural products from abroad.

Poor development of agriculture in Russia is determined by the following reasons:

· slowing temps of technological modernization of the industry

· undeveloped logistics and infrastructure

· insufficient inflow of private capital investment

· deficit of qualified labour force

· low subsidy levels

Now government try to stimulate the development of rural area and agricultural production by increasing subsidies. In recent years Russia's farming has seen a decade of strong growth. Last year agricultural production grew at a rate of 10%. Still it represents only 4 % of Russia's GDP – compared with up to 14% in developed countries.

Structure of the Russian Agriculture

 

Change in Production of Agricultural Goods

 

 

 

 

Why it is important to develop agricultural sector of the economy in Russia?

Russia's agriculture is among the most promising sectors of the Russian economy today. Russia has a great deal of what can be considered "unused capacity" in agriculture. Russia is endowed with tremendous resources in terms of land and water to boost agricultural production.

If the government managers to find the solution of problems, Russia will be able to become a major agricultural power boosting Russia's GDP and export potential.

Potential importers of Russian agricultural products can be European countries and developing countries, such as Iran and China, which because of the rapid grow of population and lack of agricultural area will soon have to import agricultural products from abroad. In the «OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2006-2015» Russia is viewed as potential exporter to the countries of Middle East and North Africa.

Growth of production and export of agricultural products will have a positive effect on the economic and social development of the whole country, on the demographic situation in the country, formation of the middle class. Agriculture would also push money into rural areas – where it is needed most. It would also create labour-intensive industries to compete with construction in Moscow, which for now is the target of nearly every immigrant to Russia and nearly all migration within Russia.

Moreover Agrarian countries have "a certain buffer that softens the effects of the global financial and economic crisis".

 

Russia agriculture vs american agriculture.

Almost 21mln.people or about 17 % of all population works in the agriculture of USA. Nearly 3 millions independent farms deliver feed products to the American consumers. The area of an average farm in the USA makes about 400 acres.

Specific feature of financing of USA economy, is that the means from the federal budget are primary allocated for the target programs having national importance.

In the USA the agriculture is based on farming. The main aim of agriculture is to make it competitive on the market. The agriculture gets all the support from the side of government, which also protect the farming from inflation on the market. Besides a farmer has a right to leave as deposit his produced products in the period of the decrease of prices, so that it could help to maintain the production level. However if the state on the market improves, the producer (a farmer) has a right to take back his products and gave the money from his earnings to the government.

The US agricultural policies provide minimal and steady prices for agricultural products. The price support frequently results in huge surpluses of agricultural products. There is therefore some concentrations of agricultural production in hands of the largest manufacturers in the USA. But even largest agricultural manufacturers accept the established prices for production.

So, one of major functions in agriculture is to stimulate scientific and technical development, accelerate realization of technical novelties, which, as a rule, require large additional capital investments.

We have recently visited one of the states of America -Iowa, which concentrates on agriculture. There are a lot of farms, which grow the crops, grain, and livestock. Moreover all the farms are well-equipped.

Thus the agriculture in USA is highly developed, and one of the main points in achieving such good results-is the protection from interfering foreign companies and their subsidiaries.

However in Russia we can see a different situation. There are a big amount of agriculture holding companies with dominated share in foreign capital. Foreign companies buy the land and allocate their farms, so that it made a big competition for households.

Another reason for poor development of farming is corruption. It is better to attract foreign companies and give them for rent the lands, than to sell it to the farmer.

Finally, Russia is willing to import more production, than to produce it.