The profession of irrigation engineer

CONTENTS

 

The profession of irrigation engineer 1

The agricultural education in Ukraine. 3

The supply of water 4

Source of water 6

Storage and distribution of water for irrigation. 10

Irrigation system... 13

From the history of dam construction. 16

Methods of irrigation. 19

Drinage. 24

Тренувальні вправи. 26

 

Перекладіть наступний текст, випишіть а) обов’язки меліоратора; б) необхідні навички для спеціаліста:

The profession of irrigation engineer

How did ancient farmers grow corn in the cactus-studded Sonoran Desert as early as 2000 B.C.? Some form of irrigation was clearly necessary, but until 2009 no one had ever seen evidence for one of these primeval watering systems. American archaeologists have excavated an enormous network of canals and fields stretching over as many as 100 acres and dating to 1200 B.C.

The oldest known hydraulic engineers were from China (6th century BCE). The Irrigation System was built in 256 BCE to irrigate an enormous area of farmland that today still supplies water. By the 2nd century AD, during the Han Dynasty, the Chinese also used chain pumps that lifted water from lower elevation to higher elevation.

Nowadays irrigation engineers plan, design, and oversee construction of irrigation projects for transporting and distributing water to agricultural lands.

An irrigation engineer is a person who designs irrigation systems and oversees their construction or implementation. He or she must have a solid understanding of irrigation processes as well as moderate engineering skills for designing effective systems.

An irrigation engineer should have a thorough knowledge of farming processes as well as other uses for irrigation systems.

Training and education required for water resources engineer jobs include four-year degrees that provide a strong foundation in mathematics, the physical sciences and geology.

The engineer is likely to interact regularly with other experts such as farmers, ranchers, other engineers, or designers to ensure the irrigation systems meet the demands of the users and are within adherence of local laws and regulations. An irrigation engineer can work with private land owners and government agencies; at the scientific research institutes and at the educational establishments.

Word List

аncient	стародавній
іrrigation	зрошення
network	мережа (каналів)
hydraulic engineers	водні інженери
supply	постачати
distributе	розповсюджувати
oversee	слідкувати
implementation	застосування
solid understanding	впевнені
meet the demands	розуміти потреби

Вправа 1

Перекладіть словосполучення:

grow corn, primeval watering systems, irrigation system, network of canals, lifted water, irrigation engineers, for transporting and distributing, agricultural lands, designs irrigation systems, oversees their construction, four-year degrees, private land owners

Вправа 2

Дайте відповіді на запитання:

1. When did American archaeologists excavate an enormous network of canals?

2. Who was the oldest known hydraulic engineer?

3. What kind of equipment did the Chinese use by the 2nd century AD, during the Han Dynasty?

4. What do modern irrigation engineers do?

5. How long are training and education required for water resources engineer jobs?

6. Does the engineer need to interact regularly with other experts? Why? Вправа 3

Підготуйте розповідь про професію гідромеліоратора.

Word list

to join the Bologna process	приєднатись до Болонського процесу
the Candidate of Agriculture	кандидат сільськогосподарських наук
the Doctor of Agriculture	доктор сільськогосподарських наук
the more... the better	чим більше... тим краще наукове
the scientific research	дослідження
to train specialists	готувати фахівців
to write theses	писати дисертацію
bachelor	бакалавр
master	магістр

Вправа 1

Дайте відповіді на запитання:

1. Where are the specialists for agriculture trained?

2. How can you characterize the higher education?

3. Where is the system of the agricultural education directed to?

4. What does the initial level of the agricultural education include?

5. What can you tell about the agricultural colleges?

6. What does the training take into account?

Вправа 2

The supply of water

The total amount of water contained in our planet is constant and invariable and can neither be increased nor diminished. It assumes a variety of forms, such as the oceans, moisture vapor, fresh water, lake water of varying degrees of salinity, and salinity. As most of this water is locked away in the oceans, in snow fields, ice caps and glaciers, only a small proportion is available in a form readily usable by man. Moreover, a great deal of the water in and on the land is polluted by minerals or by industrial waste and so frequently rendered unusable.

Of the water contained in the oceans, a very small proportion daily changes its form and composition and is moved to the land, where it can be used by man and from where it returns to the oceans. This process, which has ho beginning and no end, is known as the hydrologic cycle. It comprises a gigantic system operating in and on the land and oceans of the earth and in the atmosphere surrounding it. It is estimated that something like 80,000 cubic miles of water are evaporated each year from the oceans, together with approximately 15,000 cubic miles of water evaporated from the lakes, rivers, canals and land surfaces of the continents. This total global evaporation is exactly balanced by the total precipitation, of which approximately 24,000 cubic miles in the form of waterfall on the land surfaces and the rest on the oceans. This cyclical movement of water is divisible into three main stages. Firstly, solar radiation, acting upon the surface of the oceans, heats the surface layers and causes evaporation and the diffusion of water vapor upwards info the atmosphere. The water vapor, which at this stage is pure, is then transported great distances by the winds. During its movement across the oceans and over the land, it may become polluted in a variety of ways: by atmospheric dust, by particles of radioactive material or by industrial and domestic - smoke.

In the second stage of the cycle, the air masses containing the water vapor are suddenly cooled. This cooling, which may occur for a number of reasons, though primarily as a result of the air masses being forced to rise over high ground, causes condensation to take place and rain or snow to be precipitated. Of this precipitation, some falls directly into the oceans, out of man's reach and some is too heavily polluted to be usable.

The third and final stage is that in which the water moves back, over and under the land, into the oceans from which it came. Of the water which falls upon the land, some flows over the surface, some sinks into the soil, and some is taken up by the roots of vegetation to be used by plants and subsequently released into the atmosphere by transpiration. If, for example, an average of thirty' inches of rainfall precipitation that appears in natural or artificial surface streams reaches the land surface each year, approximately twenty-one inches will evaporate directly or be transpired by vegetation. Of the remaining nine inches, most will run directly to the oceans as surface runoff or permeate the rock materials beneath the surface to form underground water and, at a later stage, indirectly reach the oceans. Water which began in the oceans sooner or later returns to them. The only stage in the cycle at which man can, at present, intervene and make use of the water on a large scale is the third and only then if the water is comparatively pure.

Word List

total amount - загальна кількість	frequently - часто
to contain - вміщувати	to change - змінювати
constant - постійний	to move - рухатися
invariable - незмінний	land - земля
to increase - збільшувати	to return - повертатися
to diminish - зменшувати	to know - знати
oceans - океани	hydrologic cycle - гідрологічний цикл
moisture vapor - волога пара	to estimate - оцінювати
fresh water - прісна вода	to evaporate - випаровуватися
lake - озеро	approximately - приблизно
salinity - солоність	surface - поверхня
to lock - замикати, вміщувати	precipitation - опади
ice caps - горні верхівки	solar radiation - сонячна радіація
glaciers - льодовики	to heat - нагрівати
available - Придатний	layer - пласт, шар
usable - той, що використовують	to cause - спричиняти
waste - сміття	flows - потоки
polluted - забруднений	to precipitate - випадати (опади)
diffusion - розповсюдження	ground - поверхня
stage - стадія	soil - грунт
pure - чистий	to release - визволяти
dust - бруд	average - в середньому
particles - частки	runoff - стоки, потоки
smoke - дим	to permeate - просочуватися
to cool - охолоджувати	underground water - підземні води
to force - змушувати	comparatively - порівняно

Вправа 1

Визначте значення виразів за подібністю з українською або російською мовами:

the total amount; minerals of our planet; by hydrological cycle; solar radiation; diffusion of water; radio-active material; industrial smoke; the stages of the cycle: atmospheric dust; global evaporation; final stage; gigantic system; to balance condensation; the ocean of air.

Вправа 2

Визначте значення слів за словоутворюючими суфіксами:

to use, the use, used, usable; 2) to divide, division, divided, divisible; 3) to vary, variation, variable, invariable; 4) to move, movement, moved, movable; 5) to compare, comparison, compared, comparable; 6) to permeate, permeability, permeable;

7) to measure, measurement, measured, measurable.

Вправа 3

Випишіть парами вирази - синоніми:

to take place, to return, to occur come back, to cause, to comprise, to use, to make use of, to involve, to force, average, upwards, under, beneath, downward, part, upward, downwards, the rest, proportion, the remainder, quantity, mean, amount.

Вправа 4

Знайдіть у тексті антоніми наступних слів:

to increase, little, pure, rarely, usable, approximately, to cool, condensation, to fall, initial, to condensate, beginning, sooner, gradually.

Source of water

In practice, there are four general sources of water available to man: surface water, ground water, atmospheric water and the oceans. The most important of these is surface water in the form of rivers, streams and lakes. Of the other three sources, ground water is increasing rapidly in importance, particularly in those areas which lack surface drainage. The use of pure water derived artificially from the atmosphere and the oceans may become significant if and when technological advances make it available on a sufficiently large scale and at an economic cost.

Ground water or, as it is sometimes called, underground water occurs below the surface of the ground in a zone of saturation, that is the zone in which permeable rocks are saturated with water under hydrostatic pressure. Water moves down from the surface by gravity to enter this zone, the upper surface of which is called the water-table or phreatic surface; for this reason, ground water is sometimes called phreatic, subsurface or subterranean water. The lower limit of the zone is the point at which the underlying rock formation becomes so dense that water cannot penetrate it. It may vary in depth from a few feet to hundreds of feet and there are isolated examples of porous rock having been found at depths of more than a mile. The zone of saturation is very important because it supplies all wells and maintains the normal, relatively uniform flow of streams. It acts as a gigantic reservoir which retains water during wet periods causing a rise in the water-table.

Ground water has been laid down very unevenly beneath the surface and moves towards the oceans like surface water, only much more slowly.

The chief uses of ground water are for irrigation and domestic purposes. It is of no direct importance for the generation of hydroelectricity but of considerable importance in the flow of streams.

Atmospheric water, or water vapor, has two major advantages over water contained in the oceans: it is to be found everywhere above the land surface and it is free of salt. Unfortunately, no large-scale, successful, economic method has yet been devised to tap this water-supply and direct it to places where it is most needed. One serious initial obstacle lies in the fact that clouds are not necessarily water-bearing and may be 'dry'. If, however, they do contain appreciable amounts of water vapor, this may either dry out or condense and fall as rain or snow. The most that we have been able to do is to cause a particular humid cloud that would almost certainly sooner or later have precipitated to shed its moisture at a time and place, of our choosing.

This is achieved in one or two ways. The first method involves the "seeding" of clouds from airplanes or rockets with small particles of various chemicals, which cause water-droplets to form and precipitation to take place.

The, second method is to create artificial convection currents by heating a large air mass near the ground. The air thereupon rises rapidly into the cloud, upsets the equilibrium, and causes precipitation. Some local successes have been achieved by these methods, but both are expensive and both depend upon the presence of water-filled clouds.

The oceans remain the largest potential source of water and together with the island seas contain 92.7 per cent of the earth's water. This water could be made potable if its saline content were reduced from about 35,000 parts per million to 500 parts per million or less. We have known for a long time that it is possible to produce fresh water by heating salt water and so promoting distillation. It is only recently, however, that such processes have been developed on a large scale.

Each of these processes depends upon the use of energy, which may be thermal, mechanical or solar. They each suffer from the disadvantage that the cost of desalination is very high.

It is clear therefore that although a great deal of water is available for use by man, the supply is not infinite. While it is likely that the quantity of usable water will be increased by desalination and the creation of artificial precipitation,

It is certain that for some time to come the greater proportion of our water supply will be derived primarily from surface runoff and to a lesser extent from subterranean sources.;

Water is put to a great variety of uses: for irrigating crops, for the generation of hydroelectricity, for canals and waterways, for controlling pollution and as a source of food. All these uses are interdependent. For example, the construction of a modern dam promotes irrigation, the generation of hydro-electricity, flood control and recreation. Frequently, however, the uses of such natural resources as water may be mutually exclusive and a choice must sometimes be made between one use and another.

Word List

general sources - загальні джерела	irrigation - зрошення
surface water - поверхневі води	purpose - мета
ground water - ґрунтові води	to generatе - виробляти
streams - струмки	to find (found) - знаходити
lack - недостатньо	free - вільний
drainage - осушення	unfortunately - нажаль
artificially - штучно	successful - успішний
significant - значний	to tap - виявити
advances - прогрес	to direct - направляти
sufficiently large scale - у достатньо великому масштабі	water-bearing - насичені водою
dry - сухий
cost - вартість	to condense - конденсувати
to occur - траплятися	to fall - випадати
zone of saturation - зона всмоктування	humid - вологий
permeable - нещільний	to shed - пролити
hydrostatic pressure-гідростатичний тиск	to involve - включати
water-table- дзеркало грунових вод	water-droplets - водні краплі
rock formation - гірські породи	to create - створювати
dense - щільний	equilibrium - рівновага
to penetrate - проникати	expensive - дорогий
to vary - відрізнятися	to remain - залишатися
depth - глибина	potable - питний
porous - пористий	to reduce - зменшувати
well - колодязь	possible - можливий
to maintain - підтримувати	to produce - виробляти
relatively - відносно	to develop - розвивати
reservoir - резервуар	to depend upon - залежати від
to retain - залишати	to suffer from - страждати від
wet - вологий	disadvantage - недолік
to lay (laid) down - залягати	clear - чистий
unevenly - нерівномірно	variety - різновид
considerable - значний	dam - дамба
advantages - переваги	to promote - сприяти
slowly - повільно	natural resources - природні ресурси
choice - вибір
chief uses - головне використання	exclusive - винятковий

Вправа 1

Визначте значення виразів за подібністю з українською або російською мовами:

hydrostatic pressure; the lower limit of the zone; rock formation; a wet period; hydroelectricity; successful method; various chemicals; convection currents; local success; potential source; salt water, the process of distillation; pollution control; a modern dam; isolated examples; in practice; equilibrium; uniform flow; thermal energy; gigantic reservoir

Вправа 2

Визначте значення словосполучень за словоутворюючими суфіксами:
interdependent process; subsurface water; underlying rock; uneven surface; water-filled clouds; water-bearing layers; usable water, infinite process; to a lesser extent; desalinized water

Вправа 3

Перекладіть наступні слова на українську мову, звертаючи увагу на словоутворюючі суфікси прикметників таприслівників:

significant, artificial, sufficient, successful, significantly, initially, sufficiently, successfully, artificially, initial, particularly, particular, considerably, fortunate, appreciably, considerable, appreciable, fortunately

Вправа 4

Побудуйте спеціальні запитання до наступних речень:

1. There are four general sources of water available to man.

2. Ground water is increasing rapidly in importance.

3. Underground water occurs below the surface of the ground.

4. The oceans remain the largest potential source of water.

5. Water is put to a great variety of uses.

6. The construction of a modern dam promotes irrigation.

Word List

irregular - нерегулярний	ditches - канави
frequently - часто	laterals - відвод
to carry - нести	head gate - головні ворота
volume - об’єм	excessive to eliminate -надмірні збитки
mere trickles - маленькі струмочки	wastage - зменшувати втрати
weirs - водозливи	tube - труба
diversion - розповсюдження	excessive losses - надмірні збитки
to raise - піднімати	owing to - завдяки
provision - забезпечення	seepage - просочування
flood - повінь	to prevent - запобігати
earth - земляний	permanent - постійний
stone - кам’яний	to plough - орати
especially - особливо	obstacles - перешкоди
considerable - значний	to harvest - збирати врожай
cases - випадки, докази	to deliver - доставити
complex - складний	check structures turnouts -переводи
pump - насос	increasingly - значно
to lift - піднімати	to transfer - переміщати
to require - вимагати	furrows - борозни
network - мережа	rubber - гума
main (major) - головний	capacities - потужності
unit - одиниця, частина	to convey - транспортувати
intricate - заплутаний	pipelines - трубопроводи
to lead (led) - очолювати, вести	due to - завдяки
conditions - умови	weeds - бур’яни
unable - нездатний	banks - насипи
to receive - отримувати	pressure - тиск
to install - встановити	portable - переносний
power - потужність	former - перший
to divert - повертати	latter - останній
to distribute - розповсюджувати	to consist - складатися
common means - загальні засоби	buried - виритий
evaporation - випаровування	concrete - зацементований
arid regions - посушливі райони	flexible - гнучкий
sandy - піщаний	scarce - дефіцитний
gravelly soils - гравій

Вправа 1

Визначте значення слів за словоутворюючими суфіксами:

regular, irregular, regularize, regime, barrier, control, canyon, function, to function, generation, to generate, siphon, concrete, to concrete, regulator, to regulate, regulation, structure, problem, gallon, complex, plastic, to lift

Вправа 2

Визначте до якої частини мови належать наступні слова і перекладіть їх на українську мову:

1) distant, important, permanent, dependent, efficient, different;

2) recently, considerably, frequently, practically, increasingly;

3) storage, seepage, wastage, advantage;

4) provision, diversion, division, erosion;

5) primary, necessary, secondary;

6) regularize, modernize, mechanize

Вправа 3

Визначте словарну (початкову) форму наступних слів:

lowest, later, latest, easiest, greater, higher, uncommon, conveying, buried, easier, increasingly, relatively, vaporize

Вправа 4

Розташуйте речення так, щоб вони стали планом до тексту:

1. The regime of most great rivers is irregular.

2. Dams and reservoirs are constructed to store water in the dry seasons.

3. Dams are barriers built to control the flow of water.

4. Dams include the storage and diversion of water for irrigation and the provision of flood control.

5. The most common means are with open ditches or laterals.

6. Secondary or field ditches are ploughed in at the end of the growing season.

7. Using pipelines is a very efficient way of conveying and distributing irrigation water.

8. Pipelines are still relatively uncommon.

Irrigation system

An irrigation system, regularly servicing big areas, consists of the following sections: a) head water intake unit with a regulating installation in the river's bed; b) irrigation canals (permanent and temporary); c) distribution system (sometimes also a drainage system): d) hydrotechnical installations on the canals and network; e) service and dwelling houses, hydrometric stations, communication lines (sometimes hydraulic stations), as well as other structures and arrangements for the operation of the system. Rivers, lakes or man-made reservoirs, backed up by dams, are used as sources of water supply for an irrigation system.

Reservoirs may have the form of an open body of water- surface basins, excavated-pond type and estuary basins. Surface and estuary basins are usually small in size and are used in waterworks as reservoirs of diurnal regulation. Surface basins formed by damming up some stream, are also used for diurnal regulation at diversion hydroelectric power stations.

Dammed reservoirs are much bigger and make possible the seasonal and long-term regulation of discharge. They are most widely used in the practice of ameliorative construction. The head section of hydrotechnical installations put up on this type of reservoirs has the following elements: a dam, water intake arrangements, floodgates, devices for sluicing the pumps if there are many of them.

The dam is the most important and responsible hydrotechnical structure among the head water intake installations. Dams are classified according to their purpose — barrage and storage. The barrage dams back up the water level usually to a small height with a view to creating more favorable conditions for water withdrawal, combating harmful drifts, utilization of water-power, for water transport and control of water level above the irrigated area.

Storage dams are tall structures, creating big reservoirs to regulate river discharge with a view to making better use of it in the national economy. Today, dams are built as a rule, to accumulate big reserves of water and use them simultaneously for irrigation, watering, power generation, supplying the population and industry with water, meeting the requirements of the water economy.

The basic types of dams, with regard to the material they are built of, are as follows: 1) earthen dams, put up by the fill or hydraulic fill methods; 2) rock filled or of dry rock masonry; 3) concrete or of cemented rock; 4) reinforced concrete.

Dams are distinguished by their design and ways of letting the water through them. With regard to design, the dams are classified in the following way:

Ø dams, resembling in form natural barriers, chokes (earthen dams, rock filled dams with an earthen or reinforced concrete screen);

Ø massive, heavy dams, resisting the water's forces by their friction forces along the foundation and adhesive power with regard to it (concrete gravity dams);

Ø buttressed dams, which holding frictional force is erected by the water pressing on the inclined face of the dam and transmitted to the foundation via the buttresses; such dams are mostly built of reinforced concrete. They are comparatively light;

Ø arched, concrete or reinforced concrete.

They are classified in the following way with regard to water passage through the dam:

Ø dams without overflow, which do not let the water pass through them;

Ø spillway dams, which are designed to let the water overflow their crest:

Ø gate dams or spillway-gate dams, where water is passed through surface or underwater gates with shutters.

Word List

irrigation system - система зрошення	to combat - боротися
to service - обслуговувати	harmful drifts - шкідливі замети
area - ділянки	utilization - використання
head water intake - головний водозбір	with a view - з метою
to accumulate - накопичувати
unit river's bed - басейн річки	simultaneously to - одночасно
temporary - тимчасовий	regard to earthen fill насипний метод
distribution system - розподільна система	meet the requirements with - відповідати вимогам щодо
dwelling houses - житлові будинки	withdrawal - забирання
arrangements - заходи	hydraulic fill rock - намивний метод
man-made - штучний	filled - кам'яне накидання
to back up - підтримувати	dry rock masonry -суха кам’яна кладка
open body - відкриті водойми	cemented rock - бетонний
surface basins - відкритий басейн	reinforced concrete - залізобетонний
excavated-pond - штучні ставки	to resemble - нагадувати
estuary basins - лимани	to resist - чинити опір
waterworks - система водопостачання	diurnal regulation - добове регулювання
screen - екран
long-term - довгостроковий	friction forces - сили тертя
discharge - розвантаження	adhesive power - сила зчеплення
ameliorative - меліоративний	buttressed - контрфорсний
to put up - будувати	to erected - зводити
following - наступний	inclined face - похила грань греблі
water intake - водозабірні пристрої	to transmit via - передавати через
arrangements - шлюзи	arched - арочний
responsible - відповідальний	water passage - пропуск води
floodgates devices for sluicing - пристрої для шлюзування	overflow spillway - переповнення
crest - водоскид
according to - відповідно до	gate dams - гребінь
height - висота	spillway-gate - щитові греблі
to create - створювати	shutter - ворота водоскиду - затвор
favorable - сприятливий

Вправа 1

Визначте значення виразів за подібністю з українською мовою і за словоутворюючими суфіксами:

hydrometric station; hydraulic statton; seasonal regulation; classification of dams; utilization of water power, to accumulate reserves of water; to regulate river discharge; national economy; types of dams; cemented rock; massive dams; natural barriers

Вправа 2

Вправа 3

Закінчить речення, використовуючи наступні слова:

their design; their purpose; water passage through the dam; the material.

1. Dams are divided into barrage and storage dams according to.... 2. They are divided into rock filled, concrete and reinforced concrete dams according to.... 3. Dams may be divided into massive, buttressed and arched dams according to… 4. They may be called spillway dams, gate dams or dams without overflow with regard to …

Вправа 4

3найдіть в тексті слова, котрі відповідають наступним словарним визначенням:

1) the system by which water is made available for irrigation;

2) the barriers built across a river raising water to a small height to create favorable conditions for water withdrawal;

3) the barrier across a river creating big reservoirs to regulate river

discharge.

Вправа 5

Складіть складний план до тексту.

Word List

abutment - Опора	to withstand - витримувати
huge - великий	volume - об’єм
failure - провал	ancient - стародавній
to attempt - спроба	rough idea - мати деяку уяву
to be supposed - здається	to hold - утримувати
far ahead - далеко вперед	evidently - очевидно
initial - початковий	beasts - тварини
size - розмір	alabaster quarries - алебастрові кар'єри
feet - фут (1 фут=30см)	to expect - очікувати
top - верхівка	catchment - водозбірна площа
base - основа,	rainfall records - статистика опадів
to occupy - займати	to estimate - оцінювати
desert - пустинний	proportion - частка
to avoid - уникнути	actual amount - дійсна кількість
interruption - порушення	slope - нахил
upstream - проти течії	absorption - поглинання
carefully - ретельно	parched desert - випалена пустеля
limestone - вапняк	surface - поверхня
lb. - фунт (450 гр.)	to occur - траплятися
weight - вага	to exceed - перевищувати
to except - за винятком	ignorant - неосвічений
to appear - з’явитися	silting - замулювання
in haste - поспіхом	breach - розрив
particularly - особливо	sufficient - достатній
downstream - за течією	to rush - стрімко рухатися
to remain - залишатися	cataract - сильна злива
to obtain - отримувати	to pour - переливати
impression - враження	a few - декілька
to carry off - зливати	labor - праця
surplus - надлишок	sympathy - співчуття
absence - відсутність	boldly - сміливо
conclusion - висновок	mortar - скріпляти вапняним розчином
to intend - мати намір	completely - повністю
to fill - заповнити

Вправа 1

Визначте значення слів за подібністю з українською мовою і за словоутворюючими суфіксами:

cylinder, empirical, formula, intensity, absorption, portion, reputation, factor, fact, catastrophe, sympathy, architect, energy, problem, idea, Egyptian

Вправа 2

Знайдіть у тексті антоніми до наступних слів:

to increase, to construct, to begin, the former, upstream, presence, ancient

Вправа 3

Знайдіть у тексті синоніми до наступних слів:

to destroy, to reduce, to get, to try, to finish, to calculate, evident, the rest, excess, initial

Вправа 4

Доберіть правильні словникові визначення до слів: flood; rainfall; dam; catchments; runoff

Ø The amount of rain, usually expressed in millimeters or inches; depth of water on an area that reaches the surface of the earth.

Ø A barrier across a water course for the purpose of impounding water barriers built to raise water-level, to divert water, to create a hydraulic head which can be used to generate power.

Ø A relatively high flow in a river, markedly higher than usual; a body of water, rising and overflowing land.

Ø The area from which a lake stream or reservoir receives surface flow which originates as precipitation.

Ø Portion of total precipitation from a given area that appears in natural or artificial streams.

Вправа 5

Methods of irrigation

The methods by which irrigation is applied to the land should depend, under ideal conditions, on individual land features such as the slope of the land, the crops to be irrigated, and the nature of the water-supply and the ability of the soil to absorb and hold water.

There are four general methods of applying water: 1) by flooding, thus wetting all the land surface; 2) by furrows, thus wetting only part of the ground surface; 3) by sprinkling, in which the soil is wetted with a spray; 4) by subirrigation, in which the soil is wetted only a little but in which the subsoil is saturated. The first three methods come under the general heading of surface irrigation.

Flood irrigation generally requires large streams or canals, gentle topography (ground slopes should usually be no greater than three per cent) and careful leveling of the land. In theory, it should be possible to ensure that every part of the area to be irrigated absorbs the predetermined amount of water; but in practice, although all parts usually receive an adequate amount, some receive too much. For this reason, flood irrigation is more suited to close-growing crops like rice.

Furrow irrigation is a method by which water is run in furrows, normally made by cultivating between crop rows. The earth is thrown up into ridges between the furrows and the seeds are planted in the center of the ridges. Furrow irrigation is very common because it is adaptable to a great variety of land slopes and soil textures and can be used with either large or small streams of irrigation water.

Difficulties may arise with the use of furrow irrigation on unsuitable soils. If the soil is very pervious, the water running along the furrows may sink vertically into the soil without ever reaching the center of the ridges where the seeds are sown. On the other hand, the soil may be so impervious that the water does not reach the center of the ridge and the seeds do not germinate anyhow. A more general disadvantage of furrow irrigation is to ensure that the whole of the irrigation area receives enough water, it is almost always necessary to overwater some parts.

Sprinkler or spray irrigation applies water to the surface of the soil in the form of a spray, and is a form of artificial rain. A common type of sprinkler head is the revolving one, which distributes water radially. This form of irrigation has advantages over other surface irrigation. It can be adapted for use on almost all types of soil, especially sandу soils which absorb water rapidly. It enables erosion to be controlled on steep land and can often be used on soils that are too shallow, too steep or too rolling to be irrigated by surface methods. Small streams of water can be used efficiently with this method, and it is adaptable to all the major crops with the exception of those, like rice, that require standing water. A uniform application of water is made possible, and the amount and timing of the irrigation can be easily controlled. Land is not needed for irrigation structures, and so larger areas are available for cropping. There are, however, a number of disadvantages of sprinkler systems. The water distribution is easily affected by the wind, which may disturb the pattern of
wetting so that some parts get too much water and some too little. The power requirements necessary to maintain the water pressure are usually greater than for other methods of irrigation, and the water used must be clean and free from debris. To ensure the most economical use of the equipment, a constant supply of water is needed. Most important of all, the initial costs of installing such systems are very high. It is especially popular as a form of supplemental irrigation in areas with adequate rainfall.

Subirrigation or subsoil irrigation applies water beneath the ground rather than on the surface. By means of lateral ditches or mole or tile drains, a water-table is maintained at some predetermined depth below the soil surface. From the water-table the water seeps upwards to the plant roots through capillary action. This method of irrigation requires complete control of the elevation of the water-table to ensure that the plant root zone in the soil is kept free from excess water. Lands suitable for this method of irrigation are rather limited; since it requires a special combination of natural conditions. It needs a layer of permeable soil immediately below the surface to allow the free movement of water, and a level surface which should be approximately parallel to the water-table.

Here are some things that farmers are doing to be more efficient: levelling of fields; surge flooding;capture and reuse of runoff.

Ø Levelling of fields: Flood irrigation uses gravity to transport water, and, since water flows downhill, it will miss a part of the field that is on a hill, even a small hill. Farmers are using leveling equipment, some of which is guided by a laser beam, to scrape a field flat before planting. That allows water to flow evenly throughout the fields.

Ø Surge flooding: Traditional flooding involved just releasing water onto a field. In using surge flooding, water is released at prearranged intervals, which reduces unwanted runoff.

Ø Capture and reuse of runoff: A large amount of flood-irrigation water is wasted because it runs off the edges and back of the fields. Farmers can capture the runoff in ponds and pump it back up to the front of the field where it is reused for the next cycle of irrigation.

Word List

to apply - застосовувати	to revolvе - обертатися
to depend - залежати	rapidly - швидко
land features топографічна інформація	to enable - дозволяти
crops - с/г культура	erosion - ерозія, руйнування
nature - походження, природа	shallow - невеликий
ability - здатність	steep - крутий
flooding - дощування	uniform - постійний
sprinkling - дощування	to affect - впливати
to spray - розбризкування	to disturb - порушувати
furrows - поливання по борознах	pattern - рух (струї)
subirrigation- підґрунтове зрошування	free - вільний
heading - заголовок	debris - домішки, бруд
gentle - слабо визначений	supplemental - додатковий
topography - рельєф	lateral - боковий
levelling - вирівнювання	root - коріння
to ensure - забезпечувати	mole or tile drains - to seep - просочуватися
predetermined - визначений
although - хоча	elevation - висота
adequate - відповідний	excess - надлишок
suited - підходящий	layer - шар
close-growing - вологостійкі	surge flooding - поступове зрошення
crops - рослини	capture - збір
to throw up ridges - робити насипи	reuse - повторне використання
adaptable - пристосований	to guide - направляти
textures - текстура	beam - промінь
pervious - рихлий	to scrape - очистити
to sink - всмоктуватися	flat - рівний
to reach - досягти	to release - звільняти
seeds - насіння	edge - край
to germinate - проростати	prearranged - заздалегідь підготовлений
on the other hand - з іншого боку -
overwater to - перезволожений	to waste - витрачати

Вправа 1

Визначте значення виразів за подібністю з українською мовою:

ideal conditions; land features; economical use; a popular form; normal technique of cultivation; a special combination; capillary action; natural conditions; in theory; parallel to the water-table; to sink vertically; to distribute water radially; in the center

Вправа 2

Визначте значення наступних слів виділіть слово утворюючі префікси та суфікси:

to overwater the area; to overestimate results; to underestimate the fact; subirrigation; subsoil irrigation; adaptation; an easily adaptable method; predetermined depth; approximately parallel

Вправа 3

Вправа 4

Вправа 5

Виходячи з змісту тексту, визначте, якому методу зрошення відповідають наступні словникові визначення:

Ø watering of plants by applying the water below the ground surface; a method of irrigation in which water under adequate pressure is sprinkled over the land;

Ø a method of irrigation in which water covers the surface of the land;

Ø a method of surface irrigation in which water is run in furrows between crops

Drinage

Getting the water onto the land is only part of the problem that faces the farmer; of almost equal importance is the disposal of water after use. Too much water in the soil can be worse than not enough, while inadequate planning and improper irrigation frequently result in salination and waterlogging. Salination occurs because the roots of the plants absorb the irrigation water but exclude most of the salt it contains. The salt remains in the soil zone upon which the plant depends for growth and eventually renders the soil sterile.

To prevent catastrophic consequences, which are told common in many areas, there must be complete and efficient control of irrigation water. It is difficult to overestimate the harm caused by salination and waterlogging; indeed, reclaiming lands ruined through faulty or misused irrigation is almost as important as bringing new lands under irrigation for the first time.

If reclamation is to be successful, the basic problem is to lower the water-table so that it is kept below the root zone. This may be achieved in a number of ways: a grid of deep ditches may be laid along the boundaries of the fields, or lines of tiles lay in the fields to collect the water and convey it to a collector ditch.

Many areas, particularly in the arid parts of Asia, cannot be conveniently or economically recovered by normal drainage processes. One method of restoration in these circumstances requires the installation of tube wells for pumping the areas to be drained and using the pumped water for further irrigation elsewhere. This method is of growing importance in some countries, but it can be very costly, sometimes proving more expensive than bringing in new irrigated areas. The use of tube wells for this purpose is likely to increase when cheap hydroelectric power becomes available on a larger scale.

However, it is necessary not only to reclaim areas that have already been spoiled, but also to prevent further ruin. This can only be done by a more efficient use of water, and one way of ensuring this in the future will doubtless be by using automatic control systems. In such system an irrigation canal is parted into separate sections, and in each section a stable water level is maintained automatically. The system eliminates disastrous local shortages of water by maintaining stable levels of water in the irrigation canals serving a large area. Such a system is very expensive, but it is claimed, doubtless under favorable conditions, that the capital costs can be regained in less than two years. The large canal systems will be controlled by computers. Data on the condition of the irrigated areas, including the humidity of the air and soil, the density of the soil and the nature of the crop, are sent into a computer, which then estimates the water requirements for given areas and select optimum water regimes for each section of each canal and for the system as a whole. It is suggested that the system brings considerable savings both in the consumption of water and in the cost of irrigation.

To summarize, an efficient, modern irrigation system should properly perform the following functions: a) store water so that it is available in sufficient quantities whenever required; b) deliver water to all parts of the cultivated area, in amounts needed to meet crop demands during peak use periods; c) provide complete control of water; d) divide water into required amounts for use in different fields; e) dispose of waste water after use; f) allow the free movement of farm machinery. Properly utilized, such a system allows for the most efficient use of water and makes irrigation possible without soil erosion, saline or alkaline accumulation, or waterlogging.

Word List

disposal - видалення	restoration - відновлення
worse - гірше	circumstances - обставини
improper - невідповідний	elsewhere - в іншому місці
salination - засолення	cheap - дешевий
waterlogging - заболочування	spoiled - зіпсований
to exclude - видаляти	further - далі
eventually - зрештою	doubtless - безсумнівно
to render - надавати	separate - окремий
consequences - наслідки	stable - стабільний
to overestimate - переоцінити	disastrous - згубний
harm - шкода	capital - головний
reclaiming - освоєння	to regain - відновити
to ruin - руйнувати	data - данні
faulty - помилково	savings - економія
to bring - приносити	consumption - споживання
to achieve - досягати	to perform - виконувати
ways - шляхи, способи	amount - кількість
a grid - сітка	to divide - поділити
tiles - плитка	to dispose - розпоряджатися
collector ditch - колекторна канава	alkaline - лужний
conveniently - зручно	accumulation - накопичення

Вправа 1

Визначте значення виділених слів за подібністю з українською або російською мовами і за словоутворюючими суфіксами:

utilize, summarize, catastrophic, automatic, economic, experimental, economically, automation, accumulation, section, capital, computer, optimal, optimum

Вправа 2

Визначте значення наступних слів, вкажіть способ словотворення:

to overestimate, to misuse, humidity, density, useless, doubtless, improper, inadequate, particularly, successful

Вправа 3

Знайдіть у тексті:

1) іменники, котрі відповідають наступним дієсловам:

to compute, to consume, to erode, to move, to accumulate, to restore, to require, to reclaim, to demand, to drain, to dispose, to pump, to use, to experiment, to install, to grow

2) дієслова, котрі відповідають наступним іменникам:

maintenance, storage, delivery, performance, reclamation, division, elimination, disposal, selection

Тренувальні вправи.

1. Перекласти вживаючи відповідні модальні дієслова:

1. Він зміг закінчити роботу вчасно.

2. Можна взяти ваш словник?

3. Вони змушені були працювати у важких умовах.

4. Мої друзі зможуть допомогти мені.

5. Чи вмієш ти кататись на ковзанах?

6. Маленький хлопчик не міг відкрити важкі двері.

7. Ми будемо змушені виводити нові сорти рослин.

8. Я не можу прочитати текст без словника.

9. Петро повинен був прийти о 7 годині.

10. Можна допомогти тобі?

11. Ти можеш використати ці дані.

12. Я не міг вирішити цю проблему.

13. Ми зможемо виконати завдання самі.

14. Діти повинні сумлінно навчатись.

15. Вони були вимушені залишитись вдома.

CONTENTS

 

The profession of irrigation engineer 1

The agricultural education in Ukraine. 3

The supply of water 4

Source of water 6

Storage and distribution of water for irrigation. 10

Irrigation system... 13

From the history of dam construction. 16

Methods of irrigation. 19

Drinage. 24

Тренувальні вправи. 26

 

Перекладіть наступний текст, випишіть а) обов’язки меліоратора; б) необхідні навички для спеціаліста:

The profession of irrigation engineer

How did ancient farmers grow corn in the cactus-studded Sonoran Desert as early as 2000 B.C.? Some form of irrigation was clearly necessary, but until 2009 no one had ever seen evidence for