Многофункциональные служебные слова

 

УПРАЖНЕНИЯ

I. Переведите следующие предложения:

А

 

1. We were told, we had built Socialism and created conditions for the onward march to Communism. 2. Our peace proposals are approved and welcomed by all peoples, for they fully correspond to their interests. 3. We are proud of the great contribution that women have already made towards the lessening of world tension. 4. China, like the other great nations, must be represented in the United Nations Organization. 5. China used to suffer from a chronic food storage, but that situation has fundamentally changed since the establishment of new economic approach. 6. Since 1945, immense changes have occurred in the Far East.

 

2. Only scientific theory can ensure practical achievements. 2. We now know that the atom is divisible. 3. The electric current flows in the circuit only after it is closed. 4. The only resistance in this case is the internal resistance of the cell. 5. The movement of a jet plane is so swift that the eye can follow its flight only with difficulty. 6. Unlike uranium, oxygen is a very light element. 7. Since the weight of a body is a force, it must be expressed in force units. 8. The boiling stopped and the liquid became still. 9. We could not see the ships as they were hidden by a dense fog.

 

B

 

1. The declaration of the Council of Peace rightly points out that its demands are quite practical. 2. We want the atomic warfare to be forbidden since the atomic bomb is a weapon of mass destruction. 3. When the Great Patriotic War broke out the Soviet State was still the only socialist country in the world. 4. Scars left by the war are still visible in many cities of Egypt. 5. In the colonies monopoly capital functions parasitically, since it is invested principally in the sphere of circulation and does not contribute to the economic development of these countries.

1. A great amount of energy liberates after the atomic burst. 2. It was believed before that the atom is indivisible. 3. It is difficult to liberate oxygen from a compound, for its compounds are very stable. 4. The Centigrade temperature scale is the only scale used in most countries. 5. Potassium chloride melts at 360 and, as the temperature rises still higher, bubbles of oxygen appear in the liquid and break on its surface. 6. Since one-half of the material of the earth’s crust is oxygen, its compounds are very common. 7. We expect the chemical properties of pure oxygen to be like those of air. 8. All planes but one returned from the flight. 9. We like all kinds of sport. 10. Unlike Sofia a city of straight avenues, Bucharest has many winding streets.

 

C

 

1. The Soviet Union had always had the support of the working people of all countries, for in the Soviet Union they saw a reliable defender of universal peace and security. 2. The growing might of the Soviet State strengthened the cause of peace throughout the world, for it is entirely placed at the service of peace. 3. In the short period since the Chinese People’s Republic was established, profound historic changes occurred in the country. 4. That “policy of force” and cold war policy run sharply counter to the national interests of all countries has now become obvious even to many of those who in the past actively supported these policies. 5. The USA still pursues the policy of banning trade with democratic countries.

 

1. A transformer cannot be called a machine, for it has no moving parts. 2. A mixture of two liquids like milk is called an emulsion. 3. In radar, unlike in communication, the transmitter and the receiver are located at the same place. 4. Like poles of magnet repel each other. 5. Perpetuum mobile is but a naïve dream of the ancient people. 6. As the radio wave travels through the space, the electromagnetic part of its energy rapidly drops in strength. 7. As we should infer from the vigor with which its constituents combine, water is a very stable substance. 8. In the atomic nucleus there are forces of attraction that keep the protons and neutrons together. 9. These two particles are very much alike.

 

II. Переведите текст, обращая внимание на значение многофункциональных слов:

COHESION AND ADHESION

 

When we consider the magnitude of the forces that must be applied to tear apart portions of solid bodies, it is evident that the particles composing the bodies must be mutually attracted, and by large forces. The particles are said to cohere, and the property is called cohesion. We know further that such forces must be effectively operative but over small distances, for a solid body, after being cut in two, will not re-cohere with cohesive forces that approach something like the original values even after the faces of the cut have been carefully polished.

By great refinement in polishing, and by pressing the surfaces together, still greater force can be developed, but the original value still will not be reestablished.

Adhesion is a similar property, but involving unlike bodies in contact. Cohesions and adhesions are shown not only by liquids but also by solids.

An interesting illustration is found in the phenomena that occur in contacts between solids and liquids. Some liquids “wet” a given solid, but others do not. For example, an attempt to empty a clean glass vessel after tilling it with water leaves the entire surface of contact wet, since the water has adhered to the glass so that the forces of cohesion of its own particles were unable to tear it away.

This is not the only feasible example, as there are many other liquids with like adhesive properties.

Contrasting behaviour is shown by mercury, that does not “wet” clean glass. So, a beaker filled with mercury can be completely emptied, as the cohesion of the particles of mercury is greater than adhesion between mercury and glass.

 

Практикум

А

 

DIRECT CP VIOLATION has been observed at Fermilab by the KTeV collaboration. An important way of apprehending the basic nature of time and space (in the finest tradition of Greek philosophy) is to ask “what if” questions. For example, will a collision between particles be altered if we view the whole thing in a mirror? Or what if we turn all the particles into antiparticles?

These propositions, called respectively parity (P) and charge conjugation (C) conservation, are upheld by all the forces of nature except the weak nuclear force. And even the weak force usually conserves the compound proposition of CP. In only one small corner of physics – the decay of Kmesons – has CP violation been observed, although physicists suspect that CP violation must somehow operate on a large scale since it undoubtedly helped bring about the present-day preponderance of matter over antimatter.

K mesons (kaons) are unstable and do not exist outside the interiors of neutron stars and particle accelerators, where they are artificially spawned in K-anti K pairs amidst high energy collisions. K’s might be born courtesy of the strong nuclear force, but the rest of their short lives are under control of the weak force, which compels a sort of split personality: neither the K nor anti-K leads a life of its own. Instead each transforms repeatedly into the other. A more practical way of viewing the matter is to suppose that the K and anti-K are each a combination of two other particles, a short lived entity called K1 which usually decays to two pions (giving K1 a CP value of +1) and a longer-lived entity, K2, which decays into three pions (giving K2 a CP value of -1). This bit of bookkeeping enshrined the idea then current that CP is conserved.

All of this was overthrown when in 1964 the experiment of Jim Cronin and Val Fitch showed that a small fraction of the time (about one case in every 500, a fraction called epsilon) the K2 turns into a K1, which subsequently decays into two pions. This form of CP violation is said to be indirect since the violation occurs in the way that K’s mix with each other and not in the way that K’s decay. One theoretical response was to say that this lone CP indiscretion was not the work of the weak force but of some other novel “superweak” force. Most theorists came to believe, however, that the weak force was responsible and, moreover, that CP violation should manifest itself directly in the decay of K2 into two pions. The strength of this direct CP violation, characterized by the parameter epsilon prime, would be far weaker than the indirect version. For twenty years detecting a nonzero value of epsilon prime has been the object of large-scale experiments at Fermilab and for nearly as long at CERN. In each case, beams of K’s are sent down long pipes in which the K-decay pions could be culled in sensitive detectors.

At the APS Centennial meeting in Atlanta last week, both groups discussed their work. The KTeV group at Fermilab reported a definite result: a ratio of epsilon prime to epsilon equal to 28 (+/-4) x 10 ^{– 4}, larger than the theoretical expectation. As for the NA48 group at CERN, Lydia Iconomidou-Fayard said that data analysis was still proceeding and no definite measurement could be reported at this time. The principal conclusion was stated by KTeV co-spokesman Bruce Winstein: Before the new experiments direct CP violation had not been established, owing to the large uncertainty in the early measurements of epsilon prime; the new experiment, by contrast, does succeed in establishing a nonzero value for epsilon prime, thus providing a new way to probe (a parameter that can be measured in the lab) this cosmologically-important and most mysterious feature of particle physics.

 

CREATING ANTIMATTER WITH LASER LIGHT. Intense light from the Petawatt laser at Livermore, the world’s most powerful laser, has been directed onto a thin gold film where it creates a plasma plume, which acts as a sort of messy wakefield accelerator. In particular the laser electric fields rip electrons from the gold atoms and send the electrons shooting off with energies as high as 100 MeV. Some of these electrons radiate gamma rays which in turn can create electron-positron pairs (the first antimatter made in laser-solid interactions) and can also induce fission. Thus laser photons at the electron-volt level can, by teaming up, initiate the sort of million-electron-volt nuclear reactions that normally take place only at an accelerator. Moreover, the femtosecond laser pulses can be focused to a much smaller spot size then is possible with any conventional particle beam. Tom Cowan reported these results at last week’s APS centennial meeting in Atlanta.

 

TABLETOP THERMONUCLEAR FUSION. Yet another Livermore photonuclear breakthrough was reported at the APS meeting. Todd Ditmire described an experiment in which laser pulses (35 fsec long and intensities as high as 1017 W/cm2) were absorbed by a gas jet of deuterium molecules. These molecules actually resided in clusters (average size of 5 nm) which exploded under the laser bombardment. Some of the rocketing D’s fused into helium-3 nuclei plus energetic neutrons. The neutrons, showing up with a characteristic energy of 2.45 MeV, were detected (about 10,000 per laser shot) via a time-of-flight technique. Ditmire said that this new approach to promoting fusion reactions (executed with a setup that fits on a 4’x11’ table) could probably not be scaled up to provide commercial power, but that it might provide a cheap source of neutrons. The whole process is highly efficient: virtually all the laser energy was converted into ion kinetic energy.

 

MOLECULAR ASTROPHYSICS. To understand how molecules form in space, earthbound scientists are performing laboratory experiments that simulate the cold interstellar dust and gas clouds where molecules are manufactured. Some researchers study the formation of H2, the universe’s simplest and most abundant molecule. Other researchers study the properties of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), flat rings of carbon and hydrogen which seem to exist in the interstellar clouds. At the APS meeting, Gianfranco Vidali of Syracuse presented studies on how two hydrogen atoms join together on an interstellar dust grain. Shooting H atoms onto a solid target (playing the role of an interstellar dust grain, with a temperature of 10 K) and observing how many of the atoms would react on the cold surface to form molecular hydrogen, he and his colleagues found that the rate of H2 formation was higher on amorphous carbon than on olivine (a silicon-oxygen based material), suggesting that the former is a more likely candidate for interstellar dust, whose composition is still unknown. Louis Allamandola and his colleagues at NASA-Ames discussed recent experiments showing that shining UV light on PAHs can convert them to organic compounds that are present in henna, aloe, and St.John’s wort.

Combined with spectroscopic measurements that support the existence of PAHs in interstellar clouds, these experiments advance the notion that PAHs may be the precursors of biologically important molecules on our planet and possibly others.

 

ИЗМЕНЕНИЕ ЗНАЧЕНИЯ СЛОВ

Переведите следующие предложения:

А

 

1. To liberate oxygen from a compound is a very hard task. 2. When steam is superheated, hardly a trace of decomposition occurs. 3. Water contains nearly 90 per cent of oxygen. 4. Benzine is a highly inflammable liquid. 5. Radio signals are sent in short bursts. 6. The interest in ammonia centers largely in the use of liquefied ammonia for refrigeration. 7. Mercuric oxide readily decomposes at high temperature. 8. A new large plant has lately been constructed near Kiev. 9. By the 15^th of January the Leningrad Metro was ready to receive the first passengers. 10. New coal deposits have been found near Moscow. 11. Everest is the highest mountain of Himalayas. 12. The plane flew so high that we nearly lost sight of it. 13. The late arrival of the ship was due to the bad weather. 14. He came too late to take part in the experiment. 15. The engine stopped short. 16. The expedition is shortly leaving for the North Pole.

 

B

 

1. The Curies had worked very hard before they could obtain a trace of radium. 2. A hard steel bar can be easily magnetized. 3. This substance is hardly soluble in water. 4. The warship fired, but it was a near miss. 5. The region of influence of magnetic forces near a magnet is called a magnetic field. 6. The volume of a solid or a liquid body is nearly independent of external pressure. 7. A high mast is required to support the television antenna. 8. The flag was fixed high on the building. 9. Ether is a highly volatile liquid. 10. I listened to the latest news. 11. Several expeditions were sent to help Sedov, but it was too late; he had already died. 12. A number of new isotopes have lately been discovered by our scientists. 13. Short waves are widely used in radio-communication. 14. The ship got fire and stopped short. 15. One of the main parts of the cyclotron is a large, powerful magnet. 16. We use short radio waves largely for long-distance communication. 17. The velocity of the sound can be readily measured.

 

C

CONFERENCE ON METEORITES

An All-Union conference devoted to problems of meteorites has been lately held in Moscow.

So far meteorites are the only bodies of celestial origin that can be readily subjected to immediate laboratory study. Comprehensive meteorite study is highly important for the solution of the problem of the origin of planets, including the earth.

What was the origin of the meteorites? What was their development in time? We seem to be near to the solution of such problems, but the final answer to these questions can hardly be given at present. It is therefore natural that the discussion was centered largely on the origin of meteorites and their role in solar system.

One of the scientists delivered a short report on the origin of chondrules, curious rounded bodies making the bulk of large stone meteorites. He advanced a new hypothesis on the origin of chondrules; they could hardly originate as a result of the disruption of celestial bodies, but are rather themselves the “dust” mass that makes up the protoplanetary cloud, which gives birth to asteroids.

A geochemist from Leningrad presented highly interesting data on meteorites. His research work was based largely on investigating rocks with the help of radioactive isotopes, a method lately developed in Russia.

A member of the Commission on Interplanetary communication told the Conference about precise calculations of the effect of meteorite collision against the hard surface of other planets when traveling at a high speed of several miles per second.

New, highly effective instruments will shortly be ready for use in the man-made earth satellite. They will detect the contact of hard meteoric dust flying near the atmospheric layer and penetrating to our planet from the cosmic space.

 

Practicum

A

 

SUPERSYMMETRY IN ATOMIC NUCLEI. A new experiment provides solid evidence that fermions (objects with half-integral spin) are both governed by the same nuclear physics laws. (The operative term for this egalitarianism, supersymmetry, should not be confused with a similar word used in particle physics to denote the equivalence of fundamental bosons and fermions such as photons and quarks, and of all the physical forces, at energies approaching 10 19 GeV.) The nuclear shell model, dating from 1948, attempts to describe the nucleons (protons and neutrons) in an atomic nucleus as sorting themselves into shells much as electrons do in the atom as a whole. A further innovation in nuclear theory, the interacting boson model (c 1917), holds that nucleons can even pair up within their shells, protons with protons and neutrons with neutrons. Individual nucleons are fermions but nucleon pairs are effectively bosons and as such are immune from Pauli’s exclusion principle. This allows the pairs to fall into a sort of ground state, leaving only the outermost nucleons to determine the nature of the nucleus’s energy level diagram (again analogous to an element’s chemistry being determined mostly by its outermost “valence” electrons). In atomic energy diagrams the levels are separated by, at most, electron volts; in nuclear diagrams the levels are typically separated by 100 keV or so. Studying these diagrams involves shooting beams (often of protons or deuterons) into a sample, in which nuclei can be promoted into a variety of excited states, and then detecting the telltale particles and high-energy photons (gammas) that come out. Nuclei that have an even number of protons and an even number of neutrons possess perhaps a dozen excited energy levels below energy of 2 MeV, and are relatively easy to probe experimentally. Pt-194 is an example. When the target nucleus has an odd number of either protons (e.g., Au-195) or neutrons (e.g., Pt-195), the number of low-energy excited states might be 20, making it harder to predict an energy diagram. Extending the interacting boson model further to nuclei with an odd number of both protons and neutrons (a nucleus which would consist, in effect, of many bosons and at least two unpaired fermions) entails another level of difficulty.

Harder still is experimentally mapping the energy level diagram for such a nucleus since it would have one hundred or more low-lying excited states. Nevertheless, an intrepid Swiss-German collaboration has now done exactly this for Au-196, a nucleus with 79 protons and 117 neutrons. Using high-resolution detectors they were able to sort through the complex energy-level terrain of Au-196, as well as those for the other three nuclei mentioned above, with results very close to theoretical predictions, demonstrating thereby that a single set of equations could indeed account for nuclei with all the different combinations of even or odd number of neutrons and protons. This is evidence for supersymmetry in nuclei: nuclear forces seem to treat fermions and bosons equivalently, at least for these four nuclei. According to Richard Casten of Yale, who is not a team member, this new research represents an important step forward in applying the interacting boson model.

 

FACULTY POSITIONS FOR WOMEN are increasing slowly in number at US university physics departments. A new AIP report (1997-1998 Academic Workforce Report) shows that in the recent half decade (from 1994 to 1998) the percentage of full professors who are women stayed the same (3%) but the percentage of women associate professors increased from 8 to 10% and assistant professors increased from 12 to 17%. Where do these new slots come from? Partly from a very modest increase (2%) in the overall size of the faculty and partly through retirement, which for several years has held steady at a rate of 2% (43% of these came as a result of retirement incentives).

 

ПРЕДЛОЖНЫЕ ОБОРОТЫ

 

I. Переведите следующие предложения:

А

 

1. The principle of Socialism reads: “From each according to his ability, to each according to the work performed.” 2. Thanks to the swift cultural progress of the Soviet Republics all of them have their own native intelligentsia. 8. During the blockade the Leningrad shipyards were producing new types of ships in spite of extremely hard conditions in the besieged city. 4. Due to skilful organization of the work we could break all previous coalgetting records. 5. Numerous factories, power stations, and irrigation systems have been built in China and in People’s Democracies in accordance with plans drawn up by Soviet scientists and engineers. 6. As to Serbia, we insist on the withdrawal of the occupation forces from this country. 7. Because of its aggressive character the Atlantic Pact is condemned by all peace-loving nations. 8. Despite the fact that the Antarctic region is still the least-explored part of our planet, it is now possible to sketch a more detailed picture of the natural conditions in this remote area thanks to the explorations of our Antarctic expedition.

 

B

 

1. Thanks to the efforts of the countries of the socialist camp and to the activity of all partisans of peace, the menace of immediate war has been averted. 2. Our economy doesn’t develop in accordance with plans. 3. As for the Government, it has done, is doing and will do all in its power to enable the peoples to live in peace. 4. Despite their numerical strength the forces of intervention were unable to crush the freedom-loving Vietnam people. 5. In spite of brutal nazi repression the French Resistance movement emerged stronger from this severe trial.

 

_________________________________

 

1. According to Boyle’s law the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure. 2. Because of their energy, the molecules of a liquid are always in rapid motion. 3. The a.c. voltages are changed by means of magnetic induction. 4. Quartz is one of the crystals showing an electrical effect due to compression. 5. Owing to loss of heat by radiation and friction, heat engines convert only part of heat into useful work. 6. A gas can be dissolved in a liquid; in this case the liquid changes its boiling point. 7. Polzunov’s engine was the first steam engine used instead of water wheels.

 

C

 

1. Thanks to the heroism of the Soviet people the German invaders were finally crushed. 2. Despite the machinations of the enemies of Russia, our country is growing in strength. 3. The Russian troops left Tiraspol base in accordance with the Russian-Moldavian agreement. 4. Reduction of trade with the west due to the discriminatory policy of the capitalist states was compensated by increasing trade between our regions themselves.

 

______________________________

 

1. According to modern physical theories some of the electrons in a metal are free to move about in the interatomic species of the metal. 2. As to China’s natural resources, they were found to be far greater than it was formerly believed. 3. Because of the warm climate in prehistoric Europe, man had no need for the protection of special shelters or clothing. 4. By means of an electric battery it is possible to direct the flow of electrons in a conductor. 5. In case of atomic explosion the energy is liberated in the form of heat and penetrating radiation. 6. Semi-conductors are used now in radiosets instead of conventional radio-tubes. 7. Owing to food shortage and inadequate equipment the expedition could not reach the North Pole. 8. In spite of complete exhaustion Maresyev continued moving on.

 

II. Переведите текст, обращая внимание на значение предложных оборотов:

 

DIAMOND AND GRAPHITE

 

Carbon is known in variety of forms; upon examining wood and coal, fat and starch, soap, sugar, and gasoline we find that one element is common to all, namely, carbon.

Diamond and graphite, in spite of their visible dissimilarity, also belong to this group of substances.

When burned, one gram of carbon gives out different amount of heat according to the form used, thus diamond gives 7,805 calories, and graphite – 7,850.

The diamond is distinguished by its natural crystalline form. For ornamental purposes it is “cut” by grinding new faces to give it the artificial form called “brilliant”.

Owing to its hardness, - it is the hardest of familiar substances, - it can be scratched or polished only by means of rubbing with a diamond powder.

The colorless stones and those with special tints are highly valuable; as to the less valuable specimens, due to bad coloration, they are used for grinding, for glass cutting, and on the points of drills.

Diamonds are sold by the carat and the value increases with the size. The largest known specimen weighed 3,032 carats and was evaluated extremely high because of its perfect color.

Graphite is found in Siberia, Cumberland, Brazil, Ceylon and elsewhere. Unlike the diamond, it is quite soft, has a specific gravity of 2.3, and conducts electricity.

Thanks to its conductivity for heat, graphite is used to make crucibles.

As graphite does not interact with chlorine, it is widely used for electrodes instead of conventional conductors in electrochemical industries in cases when chlorine is to be liberated. Graphite is employed also as a lubricant.

 

Практикум

А

 

THE CHANDRA X-RAY TELESCOPE is now installed in its highly elliptical orbit, where the Earth itself, and not just its atmosphere, will not interfere with x-ray reception. Named for astrophysicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekher, the 14-m-long telescope is considered one of NASA’s three “great observatories”; the other telescopes in this battleship class are the Hubble Space Telescope and the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory. Chandra will have superb angular resolution (half an arc-second, 8 times better than previous x-ray telescopes), sensitivity to faint objects (20 times better), and spectral resolution (1 eV). The object of the mission is unflinchingly to explore graphic violence wherever it can be found at x-ray wavelengths: quasars, black holes, pulsars, supernovas, and intergalactic plasmas.

 

BLOCH STATES: NOT FOR ELECTRONS ONLY. It is often essential to consider an electron traveling through a solid as being a wave that spreads out through the whole of the solid. The quantum description of this spread-out electron was formulated by Felix Bloch in the 1920s. Physicists have since sought to extend this idea of a “Bloch state” to guest atoms in a crystal, but an atom’s mass is so large (and its equivalent wavelength so small) that a Bloch state for an atom has been difficult to observe. Now, physicists from Japan have seen clear signs of a Bloch state for a muonium “atom”, in effect a light isotope of hydrogen whose proton is replaced by a positively charged muon particle having 1/9 of the proton’s mass. Performing experiments at the Rutherford Appleton lab in England, the researchers studied spin-polarized muonium (Mu) atoms in a KCI crystal cooled down to 10 mK. Measuring how long it took the atoms to lose their initial polarization in the presence of an external magnetic field provided information on their energy state and matched the predictions of a Bloch model. Further studies may offer new insights into the energy bands of atoms in crystals.

 

PARTICLE ACCELERATOR TURN-ONS. The concrete poured and the magnets tuned, several important new machines are about to take up important physics matters. The Main Injector at Fermilab, dedicated in June, is an additional 2-mile racecourse for getting protons up to speed in much greater numbers. What this means is that the proton-antiproton collider run starting in 2000 will record in one year as much data as was taken in the earlier 10-year era. This is crucial since beam intensity is no less important than the energy of collision when producing rare objects, such as supersymmetric particles (hypothetical cousins of the known leptons and quarks) and the much sought Higgs boson (playing a sort of midwife role in the life of many other particles, the Higgs should also exist in its own right). New theoretical estimates for the mass of the Higgs suggest that Fermilab might just have enough energy to discover the Higgs (Science, 25 June). Meanwhile, two accelerator schemes dedicated to studying CP violation through the agency of B-meson decays, are nearly ready. The Assymetric B Factory at SLAC in California is now smashing 9-GeV electrons into 3.1-GeV positrons to produce pairs of Bs. The decay products are absorbed in a detector called BaBar. A comparable setup at the KEK lab in Japan will soon collide 8-GeV electrons with 3.5-GeV positrons inside a detector called BELLE. By the way, the cost of these detectors is a not-inconsiderable portion of the accelerators themselves. BaBar and BELLE cost, respectively $80 million and $70 million (Physics World, May 1999). Finally, at the DAFNE electron-positron collider in Frascati, Italy, CP violation is also the subject matter, but the approach is different. Here the collisions are dedicated to making phi mesons, which then decay into a pair of K mesons, which in turn break up (amid the KLOE detector) in a process that violates charge-parity in variance (CERN Courier, June 1999.)

СОЮЗНЫЕ ОБОРОТЫ

I. Переведите следующие предложения:

А

 

1. Marx analyzed capitalist system in order to arm the working class with an intellectual weapon for the overthrow of capitalism. 2. Theory becomes a material force as soon as it has gripped the masses. 3. Nowadays it is quite evident that the policy of discrimination has failed in its effect, as far as Russia, China, and India are concerned.

______________________________

1. Thermal condition occurs continuously as long as temperature difference is maintained. 2. The reaction was as violent as it was expected. 3. We strive to make things beautiful as well as useful. 4. Both the state of rest and the state of motion in a straight line can be changed only due to some force applied by another body. 5. In early times the woods and riverbanks in Europe abounded in animals which today are either extinct or occur only in southern lands. 6. The atomic bomb is not so devastating as the hydrogen bomb. 7. The radioactive changes of matter take place of their own accord; we can neither start them, nor stop them. 8. The smoother the surface and the lighter the object on it, the less is the minimum force that must be applied to produce motion.

 

B

 

1. In 1980 alone major industrial products as well as consumer goods were produced in much greater quantities than in the whole period of the Yeltsin’s presidency. 2. Our eastern borders extend as far as the Pacific Ocean. 3. Since World War II the colonial peoples have either succeeded in wining their national independence or are striving for this cherished goal.

_________________________________________

 

1. As long as there is still some water left unevaporated in the container, the steam formed will not be pure steam, but will have some particles of water in suspension. 2. As soon as the heating ceased we noticed the liquid to change its color. 3. Water is as necessary for life as air or food. 4. The all Zimbabwe Federation of Trade Unions is organized both on tribal and industrial lines. 5. The direct current is not so widely used in everyday life as the alternating current. 6. In order to overcome the increasing repulsion of proton and maintain stability in the heavier elements, nuclei must contain an increased proportion of neutrons. 7. When glass and porcelain are heated they neither lose nor gain in weight. 8. The more work a body can do, the more energy is possesses.

 

C

 

1. British foreign policy has always been based on the recognition that the peaceful co-existence of Palestine and Israel is both possible and desirable. 2. Peaceful co-existence of different states is quite possible as long as there is mutual desire to cooperate. 3. The parrot cry reads to the effect that our country knows neither unemployment nor economic depression. 4. After the revolution Michurin was given as much assistance as he needed.

______________________________

 

1. The Peking library contains the most ancient books in existence as well as the works in computing science. 2. In an alternating current the voltage rises from zero to its maximum value, then falls back to zero and goes on below zero on the negative side just as far as it rose on the positive side. 3. Benzene is not so valuable as ether. 4. Salt occurs underground either in strata in almost pure form, or mixed with rocky materials. 5. In order to make use of the electron emission the filament is surrounded by a sheath of a thin metal, which is called the anode. 6. The faster an object moves the greater is the air resistance. 7. The expedition started as soon as all the preparations were completed.

 

II. Переведите текст, обращая внимание на значение союзных оборотов:

 

CHEMICAL ENERGY

 

We know that heat is generated at reactions, as in the reactions of compounds with oxygen, with chlorine, with sulphur, etc. We also know that as far as possible industry strives to utilize these heat exchangers in order to economize fuel.

Heat is evolved in synthetic reactions as well as in other kinds of reactions. Thus, for example, we notice that when hydrogen peroxide is decomposed by means of manganese dioxide, the test tube becomes perceptibly warm. And when we displace both the hydrogen of sulphuric acid by zinc and the copper of copper sulphate by iron, we also note an evolution of heat. A vast amount of heat is generated as soon as an explosive substance is decomposed. Chemical reactions may be accompanied by other phenomena besides the evolution of heat. Thus in a number of reactions as in reactions of combustion, the synthetic reactions of chlorine, and the explosion of gun-powder, we have an emission of light as well as the evolution of heat. Some reactions produce electricity. Heat, light, and electricity are different modifications of energy.

Most commonly we use energy either in the form of chemical energy or in the form of mechanical energy.

In certain branches of industry chemical energy is not so widely used as mechanical energy.

One form of energy can be transformed into another, but it can be neither created, nor destroyed.

The more chemical energy a substance contains the more mechanical energy can it gives.

Pyroxiline and dynamite contain great stores of chemical energy and they produce a vast quantity of mechanical energy when they exploded, bursting huge rocks, destroying buildings, etc.

 

Practicum

A

 

NUCLEAR THERMOMETER. How hot is it inside the nucleus of a dysprosium atom (element 62, abbreviated Dy)? Temperature is a statistical concept that normally applies to an ensemble of many particles, such as air molecules or a gas of atoms kept in a bottle. Inside a heavy nucleus, swarming with protons and neutrons (collectively called nucleons) it’s not so easy to define temperature, owing to the many pairing and other internucleon interactions that take place, but it can be done. The nuclear environment can be sampled by colliding nuclei together and then carefully measuring the photons that fly out: high energy gamma rays, in this case, rather than the visible and infrared photons that come out of heated-up atomic gases. In this way, physicists at the University of Oslo have deduced the temperature inside a Dy nucleus (in effect, a gas of 162 nucleons) to be 6 billion K. It can be said, therefore, that even in winter parts of Norway (very small parts) remain quite warm. This is the first time a nuclear temperature ahs been measured strictly on the basis of the spectrum of gammas emitted.

 

GALAXY FORMATION IN AMOEBAS. Dictyostelium discoideum is the hydrogen atom of developmental biology. Depending on available nutrients the organism can exist in a unicellular or multi-cellular state (in which cells differentiate themselves as spore or stalk cells.) Dictyostelium cells like to huddle together. A new experiment at UC San Diego shows, furthermore, that when constrained to two dimensions the ensemble will also start rotating and persist in this motion for tens of hours. Self-organized vortex states in biological systems (flocking birds, schools of fish, bacteria) have been seen before but not in deformable units as here. A chemical wave (of the organic molecule cyclic AMP) probably brings the cells together in the first place, but thereafter the vortex behaviour seems to be guided by inter-cellular cohesion. There is so far no explanation why the cells proceed in this manner, but the vortex motion might aid in the process of sorting cell types following differentiation.

 

X-RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHY OF NON-CRYSTALS has been carried out by a group at Stony Brook. X rays have long been used to determine the structure of crystalline objects: when the waves strike periodic arrays of atoms or molecules the waves diffract into patterns which, when analyzed by Fourier-transformation algorithms, provide a map of the sample’s structure with approximately angstrom resolution. In the Stony Brook experiment x-rays are shone onto a non-crystalline micron-sized specimen (a tiny array of letters spelled out with 100-nm gold nanoparticles). By pushing the algorithms a bit, images could be formed from the x-rays scattered from this patently non-crystal object. The resolution, about 75 nm, is not nearly as good as for traditional x-ray crystallography, but still much better than could be achieved with visible light. The researchers believe their method can be applied to imaging biological specimens at the level of cells or even subcelluar objects.

 

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