Read the text and translate it into Russia.

Elements and models of a Decision-making Process

We all make decisions all the time. Some are small; some will have ramifications throughout our lives. Sometimes we make snap judgments that in retrospect seem wise. Other times we carefully weigh the pros and cons but are betrayed by fate. Often the most important decisions are nondecisions: we put things off, choose to ignore problems, or to avoid situations or people and later discover that inaction has consequences just as important as those resulting from action.

Whether small or large, short- or long-term, studied or impulsive, decision-making involves four major elements: problem definition, information search, choice, and evaluation. They are not sequential, they occur simultaneously. And it is often difficult to identify when a decision process begins and ends as most important choices are ongoing.

Problem definition

The first step in defining a problem is recognizing that it exists.

Then, problems are plentiful; attention is scare. Selecting a problem for attention and placing it on the policy agenda is the most important element in policy making. When a problem is given attention, it gains focus and takes shape.

How a problem is defined affects how it is addressed. The problem of the homeless is a good example. The people without home have always been with us. Most often they have been seen as people who because of their own weaknesses could not find work and afford homes. They were dismissed as drunks and drifters. So defined, the homeless remained a problem in the background – a problem for the Salvation Army, not the government. But as their number grew, we began to take a closer look. We saw individuals discharged from mental institutions, the unemployed whose benefits had expired, and families unable to afford decent home. And we started seeing “the homeless” as people in desperate situations. This change in our perception altered the decision process. Homelessness is now a focus of policy debate.

Information search

When we are only vaguely aware that a problem exists, our first step is often to learn more about it, and this learning is an important step in the decision-making. Acid rain is a good example. First in Europe and then in North America, people noticed that trees were dying, and a few scientists began to ask why. Pollution and changes in climate were explored. Out of this active search for information the problem gained definition: air pollution is killing trees. Then, the solutions were considered. Reducing acid rains requires costly reduction in pollution created in regions often at great distance from the dying trees. Thus, the information defined the nature of the policy-making.

Information has always been central to governing, and governments are primary sponsors of research both in the sciences and humanities. Such research is driven by the interests of scholars and may not have immediate relevance to policy debate. But it may have important policy implications. For example, advances in lasers and genetic engineering influence defense and social policy in ways unanticipated by scientists or their government sponsors.

Choice

As problems are defined and information about problems and outcomes is examined, choices emerge. Weighing options and selecting are the most visible decision-making processes.

Sometimes choices are difficult and taking decisions is very hard, especially when choices are not clear and their results are unpredictable. Should we negotiate with terrorists? Do we want to save the lives of hostages, as family members prefer, or do we want to eliminate any incentive for future terrorism?

The selection process does not necessarily require reasoned judgments; the compromises of group decision-making often produce results that only few individuals prefer; satisfying single interests often means ignoring the interests of others.

Evaluation

Decisions do not end with choices among alternatives. Decision-making involves evaluating the effects and actions. Evaluation may be formal (an official study of the results produced by a new government program) or informal (scanning the news, talking to colleagues).

Whether formal or informal, evaluation is another form of information gathering after the choice.

The distinction between information search and evaluation is arbitrary. Before decision makers reach conclusions, most try to anticipate outcomes.

The most difficult aspect of evaluating choices is establishing the criteria. The most common criterion is the result – if things turn out well we feel that we made the right choice. But in this case we may confuse good luck with good decision-making (consider the decision to have a surgery: all surgery involves risk, and if a person chooses to take the very slight risk to remove a small tumor and dies during surgery, was the decision wrong?). Results are not universal criteria for the quality of a decision. The evaluation of any decision-making must involve looking at results and processes as well as the situation faced by decision makers.

 

3. Match the words to their definitions:

1) desperate 2) weigh 3) occur 4) afford 5) anticipate 6) relevant 7) eliminate 8) expire	a) to determine the heaviness of an object by using a scale; to consider carefully in one’s mind; b) rush, violent and without care; c) have enough money to spare; d) related to matter at hand; e) look forward; f) happen; to have smth. come to mind; g) get rid of; remove or leave out; h) to come to an end;
	4. What is the English for: 1) выгода, польза 2) закончиться, истечь (о сроках) 3) загрязнение 4) принятие решения 5) взвесить все «за» и «против» 6) отложить решение проблемы 7) происходить одновременно

5. Read the text for detailed information to complete the following sentences:

1) Sometimes we make snap … that in retrospect seem wise, other times we carefully … the pros and cons but are … by fate.

2) Decision … involves four major elements: problem … information …, …, and ….

3) When we are only vaguely … that a problem …, our first step is to learn more about it and this learning is an important step in decision ….

4) The first step in defining a problem is ….

5) Before decision makers reach …, most try to … outcomes.

 

6. Check up your memory.

1) Some decisions we make have ramifications throughout our lives, don’t they? Why?

2) What four major elements does decision-making involve?

3) When does a problem gain focus and take shape?

4) Can information define the nature of policy-making? How?

5) What are the most visible decision-making processes?

6) What is the difference between formal and informal evaluation of a problem?

 

7. Translate into English:

1) Не существует верных или неверных путей принятия решений. Иногда наилучший путь – тщательное обдумывание и взвешивание возможных вариантов, но бывают и другие ситуации, которые требуют от нас риска.

2) Иногда, принимая решение, мы тщательно взвешиваем все «за» и «против», но что-то не складывается, и мы понимаем, что сделали неверный выбор.

3) Определение проблемы, требующей решения, является первым элементом процесса принятия решения.

4) Когда мы осознали, что проблема существует, первое, что нам хочется сделать – узнать о ней как можно больше. Этот элемент процесса принятия решения называется поиском информации.

5) Сделать выбор и принять решение очень трудно. Часто результаты выбора непредсказуемы.

6) Прежде чем достичь согласия по поводу какой-либо проблемы, люди, принимающие решение, стараются предвидеть последствия и оценить их.

Prepare the retelling of the text.

COMMUNICATION

Make up situations using the following words and word combinations:

1) to make decisions 2) to have ramification 3) to weigh pros and cons 4) to be betrayed by fate 5) to ignore problems

6) to anticipate the outcomes

 

GRAMMAR

SEQUENCE OF TENSES

THE COMPLEX SENTENCES