Translate the following word combinations or find Russian equivalents.

1. the cost of producing the product

2. the rival firms prices

3. the desired market share of the company

4. pricing strategy

5. to establish a 'price plateau'

6. to establish a monopoly position

7. penetration pricing

8. the size of the price drop

9. price variation

10. to hold the price

Find English equivalents for the following Russian expressions.

1. средняя стоимость

2. предельные издержки производства

3. методы ценообразования

4. разброс цен

5. дополнительная стоимость

6. назначить цену

7. завоевать место на рынке

8. неценовая конкуренция

9. конкурентное ценообразование

10. производить оценку, смету

Translate the following sentences from Russian into English.

1. В супермаркетах часто применяется тактика занижения цены для привлечения покупателей в магазины

2. Фирма подсчитывает среднюю стоимость производства товара и затем просто добавляет наценку на прибыль.

3. Иногда фирмы устанавливают разные цены на сходные товары. Это называется разбросом цен.

4. Когда товары новые, некоторые потребители готовы платить высокую цену только из-за их новизны.

5. Существует небольшое ценовое различие между различными типами продаваемых товаров при конкурентном ценообразовании.

6. Успех неценовой конкуренции зависит от упаковки и оформления товара.

7. Когда компания пытается завоевать место на рынке, она использует тактику входящей цены.

8. Цена является одним из многих факторов, которые определяют спрос на товар.

THE FUNCTIONS OF MONEY

Essential Vocabulary

A.D. = Anno Domini – нашей эры

acceptability – приемлемость

accounting – бухгалтерский учет

accumulate wealth – накапливать состояние

B.C. = before Christ – до нашей эры

bill of exchange – вексель, тратта

cash – наличные деньги

check – чек

checkbook money – деньги банковского оборота, деньги безналичных расчетов

coin – монета

commodity money – 1. товар в роли денег (напр., соль, мех); 2. товарные деньги (обладающие внутренней стоимостью в отличие от бумажных)

cost of expenditures – стоимость затрат, издержки от расходов

demand deposit – депозит до востребования; бессрочный вклад; текущий счет

deteriorate – ухудшаться

divisibility – делимость

durability – продолжительность срока использования, долговечность

enhance – увеличивать, усиливать, улучшать

fiat – декрет, постановление, указ

fiat money – деньги, считающиеся деньгами по указу

figure – подсчитывать; считать

gem – драгоценный камень

medium of exchange – средство обращения

meet the conditions – выполнять условия

mint – чеканить (монету)

near money – субститут денег

nonperishable – непортящийся

over time – в течение длительного времени

paper money – бумажные деньги

payable on demand – подлежащий оплате немедленно по предъявлении

perishable – скоропортящийся

portability – портативность

purchasing power – покупательная способность

record keeping – ведение учета, учет

representative money – представительские деньги (бумажные деньги, полностью обеспеченные золотом или серебром)

savings account – депозит, сберегательный счет

stability in value – стабильность ценности

stand for – означать, символизировать

standard of value – мера стоимости

store of value – средство накопления; средство сбережения; средство «сохранения ценности»

time deposit – срочный депозит; вклад на срок

transaction – сделка, операция

uniformity – единообразие

unit of accounting – единица учета реального капитала, единица бухгалтерского учета

value – стоимость, цена, валюта

wealth – богатство, состояние

wear and tear – износ; амортизация; изнашивание

withstand v – выдержать; противостоять

worth – цена, стоимость, ценность

worth – имеющий ценность; приносящий доход

 

Money, with its special characteristics, serves many important economic functions.

Money is anything that people commonly accept in exchange for goods and services. Money has three basic functions. It serves as a medium of exchange, a standard of value, and a store of value. Anything that serves any of these three functions is a type of money.

Medium of exchange. The single most important use of money is as a medium of exchange. A medium of exchange is any item that sellers will accept in payment for goods or services. As a medium of exchange, money assists in the buying and selling of goods and services because buyers know that sellers will accept money in payment for products or services.

Standard of value. The second use of money is as a standard of value. That is, money provides people with a way to measure the relative value of goods or services by comparing the prices of products. In this way, people can judge the relative worth of different items such as a television and a bicycle. They can also judge the relative values of two different models or brands of the same type of item by comparing their prices.

Money's function as a standard of value is also important to record keeping. Businesses need to figure profits and losses. Similarly, governments must be able to figure tax receipts and the cost of expenditures. Money, because it helps provide some uniformity to these accounting tasks, is also called a unit of accounting.

Store of value. The third function or role of money is that it can be saved or stored for later use. For money to serve as a store of value, two conditions must be met. First, the money must be nonperishable. That is, it cannot rot or otherwise deteriorate while being saved. Second, it must keep its value over time. In other words, the purchasing power of the money must be relatively constant. If both of these conditions are met, many people will accumulate their wealth for later use. If not, most people will be hesitant about saving money today that will be worth little or nothing tomorrow.

Characteristic of Money

To be used as money, an item must have certain characteristics. The five major characteristics of money are durability, portability, divisibility, stability in value, and acceptability.

Durability. Durability refers to money's ability to be used over and over again. Eggs would be a poor choice for money because they are fragile and perishable. Metals such as gold and silver, however, are ideal because they withstand wear and tear well. In fact, many coins minted in ancient times are still in existence.

Portability. Money's ability to be carried from one place to another and transferred from one person to another is its portability. As a medium of exchange, money must be convenient for people to use. Items that are difficult to carry make poor money.

Divisibility. Divisibility refers to money's ability to be divided into smaller units. Combining various coins permits buyers and sellers to make transactions of any size. Divisibility also enhances money's use as a standard of value because exact price comparisons between products can be made.

Stability in value and acceptability. For money to be useful as a store of value, it must be stable in value. Stability in value encourages saving and maintains money's purchasing power. Most people who save money are confident that it will have approximately the same value when they want to buy something with it as it had when they put it into savings.

Acceptability means that people are willing to accept money in exchange for their goods or services. People accept money because they know they, in turn, can spend it for other products.

Types of Money

Money comes in all shapes and sizes. The items used as money are a reflection of the society in which they are used. Money as a rule includes coins, paper money, checks and near money. Checks or checkbook money usually make up more than 70 percent of the nation's money supply, and nearly 90 percent of the transactions in most countries are completed by writing checks. Because checks are payable to the holder of the check on demand, checking accounts are often called demand deposits. Checks are representative money because they stand for the amount of money in a person's account. They are generally accepted because the bank must pay the amount of the check when it is presented for payment. Checks, therefore, are considered money because they are a medium of exchange, a standard of value, and a store of value. Other financial assets are very similar to money. These assets, such as savings accounts and time deposits, are called near money and are not usually considered part of the nation's money supply. Bills of exchange are examples of near money. Though they are easily accessible, these accounts cannot be used directly to buy goods or pay debts. Depositors, for example, cannot pay bills directly from their savings accounts. Since funds in these accounts can be easily converted into cash, however, they are considered near money.

Sources of Money's Value

Money must have and retain value. All money falls into three categories according to what gives the money its value. The three categories of money are commodity money, representative money, and fiat money.

Commodity money. An item that has a value of its own and that is also used as money is called commodity money. Throughout history, societies have used many commodities as money. The ancient Romans sometimes used salt as money. Precious metals such as gold and silver, and gems such as rubies, emeralds, and diamonds, have often been used as money. The majority of nations in the world today use currency – coins and paper bills – for money. The Lydians, an ancient people in Asia Minor, minted the world's first coins about 700 B.C. The Chinese developed the first paper currency, perhaps as early as A.D. 1000 or A.D.1100.

Representative money. Money that has value because it can be exchanged for something valuable is representative money. Checks are representative money because they can be exchanged for currency as long as the check writer has sufficient funds on account.

Fiat money. Value is attached to fiat money because a government decree, or fiat, says that it has value. Coins and paper money are examples of fiat money. The money has value because the government says that citizens must accept paper money and coins for all transactions.