Translate the sentences into English paying special attention to the expressions in bold type.

1. Выбирая оптимальный метод финансирования, следует принять во внимание ряд факторов.

2. После того как бюджет согласован, он используется для контроля за деятельностью всех отделов компании.

3. Следует отметить, что, чем больше предприятие, тем больше у него выбор потенциальных источников финансирования.

4. Следовательно, нужно принять решение относительно наиболее целесообразного источника финансирования.

5. Малые предприятия сталкиваются с трудностями в получении финансовых средств, в которых они нуждаются.

TYPES OF FINANCIAL OPERATIONS

Words and Expressions

borrow – занимать деньги; заимствовать; брать взаймы; брать в кредит

borrower – заемщик; берущий взаймы

capacity to pay – платежеспособность

character – репутация

charge interest – начислять проценты, взыскивать проценты

collateral – имущественный залог; дополнительное обеспечение; гарантия, поручительство (финансовое)

college tuition payment – плата за обучение в колледже

commercial bank – коммерческий банк

credit – кредит; долг

credit history – кредитная история (записи займов и выплат по ним определенного лица)

credit payments – выплаты по кредиту

credit rating – оценка кредитоспособности

credit risk – кредитный риск

disposable income – доход, остающийся после уплаты налогов, чистый доход

down payment – первоначальный взнос, первая выплата, аванс (напр, при покупке в рассрочку)

forfeit – лишиться в результате конфискации, потерять право на что-л.

home mortgage – ипотека; залог; заклад; закладная

insurance payment – страховой платеж

installment loan – ссуда с оплатой в рассрочку

interest – проценты (на капитал)

interest rate – процентная ставка

lender – заимодавец, кредитор; ростовщик

loan – заем; ссуда; кредит

loan period – срок возвращения займа

meet retirement needs – оплачивать пенсионные нужды

money market account – накопительный счет, депозитный счет денежного рынка

mortgage – заклад; ипотека, закладная

mortgagee – кредитор по закладной

NOW (negotiable order of withdrawal) account – текущий счет с выплатой процентов и списанием по безналичным расчетам (типа чеков)

passbook savings – сбережения на банковской сберегательной книжке

passbook account – сберегательный счет с выдачей сберегательной книжки

principal – основная сумма, капитал (сумма, на которую начисляются проценты)

principal and interest – капитал и проценты

pool of money – общий денежный фонд; объединенный резерв капитала

real property – недвижимое имущество

regular savings account – обычный сберегательный счет

repayment – уплата (процентов), выплата (основной суммы)

saving rate – норма сбережений

savings – сбережения, накопления

savings account – депозит, сберегательный счет

savings bank – сберегательный банк

savings deposit – сберегательный вклад

Treasury (the) – государственное казначейство, министерство финансов

Treasury bills – краткосрочные казначейские векселя

time deposit – срочный депозит; вклад на срок

 

Saving money

People in the United Stated have many ways to save money. They may spend it or save it, consume it or not consume it. Spending (the consumption of disposable income) and saving (the non-consumption of disposable income) are equally important to a strong economy.

People save money for four main reasons. They save for a down payment on an automobile or a house and to finance a major purchase such as a television set. They set money aside regularly to meet large annual or semiannual bills such as property taxes or automobile insurance payments. They save to have a ready reserve to meet unexpected expenses such as medical or home repair bills. Finally, they save for major expenses in the future such as college tuition payments or to meet retirement needs. Some people save because they want to leave money to their children.

Depositing money in a financial institution provides physical security by protecting savers' money from losses due to fire, theft, or other catastrophes that might take place in the home. Most financial instructions are protected by state and federal deposit-insurance plans.

The fee that financial institution pays for the use of depositors' money is interest. A financial institution charges interest on loans to make money. It pays interest on savings deposits to attract a pool of money it can lend. A financial institution makes a profit by charging more interest on loans than it pays on deposits.

One of the measures economists use to analyze savings behavior is saving rate, the percentage of disposable income deposited into savings accounts. The single most important determinant of personal savings in the United States is income. Two other economic factors that have key effects on the savings rate are the availability of consumer goods and rising prices. When consumer goods are adequate to meet consumer demand and prices are lower, people tend to spend their money. At such times, savings rates are relatively low. When consumer demand is greater than the supply of consumer goods and prices are high, people cannot readily purchase the goods they need or want. At such times, savings often increase.

Types of Savings Accounts

Financial institutions have devised many types of saving accounts to meet the different needs of savers. Among these are passbook savings, NOW and money market accounts.

A common type of savings accounts among financial institutions is a regular savings account, which is sometimes called a passbook account because depositors receive a book in which all account transactions are recorded. A second type of savings accounts is the negotiable order of withdrawal, or NOW account. NOW accounts are offered at most commercial banks, savings banks, and loan associations across the nation. The holder of a NOW account can write checks on the amount deposited in the account and collect interest on the money remaining in the account. Another type of savings account that pays interest and allows easy access to the savings is a money market account. It offers variable interest rates that are usually higher than those of regular savings or NOW accounts. The interest paid by money market accounts is often linked to Treasury bills because financial institutions invest the money deposited in money market accounts in Treasure bills.

A savings account that requires the saver to leave money in the account for a specific amount of time is called a time deposit.

Borrowing Money

Borrowing is the transfer of a specified amount of money from a lender to a borrower for a specified length of time. Business people borrow money to begin or expand their business, and federal, state, and local governments borrow money to finance their programs and operations. Credit is the purchase of goods and services without the actual transfer of money on the promise to pay later. Even wealthy consumers consider the use of credit necessary when purchasing expensive items such as houses and automobiles.

Consumers borrow money and use credit for two main reasons. First, buyers can enjoy the use of an item while paying off the debt. They do not have to postpone purchases until they have enough money to pay for the items in cash. Second, consumers can extend payments for expensive items over a period of time. Payments for home mortgages typically run for 20 to 30 years. Houses are made affordable in this manner. Credit payments for televisions, major appliances, and other expensive items often run from one to five years.

The money borrowed is called the principal. The amount paid by the borrower for the privilege of using the money is called the interest. Both the principal and the interest are included in the loan's repayment. Most loans are secured loans, which require that borrowers put up collateral. Collateral is something of value offered by the borrower as a guarantee that the loan will be repaid. If the loan is not repaid according to the terms of the loan agreement, the lender may take the borrower's collateral. Unsecured loans requiring no collateral are rare and usually involve small amounts of money and short periods of time.

A common consumer loan is an installment loan. Repayment of the principal and interest is divided into equal amounts according to the length of the loan period, typically 12, 18, 24, or 36 months. The length of repayment of the loan is important in determining the amount of the monthly payment. The longer the loan period is, the smaller the monthly amount the consumer must pay. Buyers who can afford higher monthly payments prefer the shorter loan period because it is less expensive.

The most common use of an installment loan is a home mortgage. A mortgage is an installment debt owed on land, buildings, or other real property. The mortgagee must repay the mortgage in installments for fixed number of years, usually between 15 and 30 years. The loan is secured by the property, which is forfeited if the loan terms are not met.

Buying on Credit

In the use of credit, no money changes hands directly. Rather than requiring money for a purchase, businesses allow customers to charge their purchases and to pay for them over a period of time. Customers who do not pay their charges in full each month pay interest on the unpaid principal until the full amount is repaid. Consumers who want credit must apply for it and must have their credit approved before the credit can be used. The creditor evaluates information about the purchaser and assigns that person a credit rating. A credit rating is an estimation of the probability of repayment.

Creditors are particularly concerned about an applicant's 4-Cs – character, capacity to pay, capital, and credit history. An applicant who satisfies the 4-Cs is likely to receive a high credit rating, meaning the person is a good credit risk. An applicant who fails to satisfy the 4-Cs is usually assigned a low credit rating.

BORROWING MONEY

Most people who have a problem with cash flow phone the bank and ask for an overdraft. It is quick and easy, but it is not always cheap. Lloyds Bank, for example, is currently charging 18.8% per year plus a monthly fee of £8.

Instead of an overdraft, why not arrange a personal loan? An overdraft is really a short-term measure for one or two months, but a personal loan is often a better idea because the repayments are structured over a pre-arranged period. Lloyds Bank charges customers an annual percentage rate of 16.7% on a £1,000 loan over 12 months.

If you see something you want in the shops, there is usually not time to ask your bank for loan, so you can use a credit card. Buying on credit is expensive, but there are some good offers. The favourite at the moment is the Save and Prosper card, with an APR (annualized percentage rate) of 13.9%.

Customers with incomes of more than £25,000 can benefit from gold charge cards. These are not credit cards, but payment cards for shops and restaurants, etc. They are useful if you want a large sum of money quickly, but the amount you borrow must be repaid at a prearranged date. The annual cost of the Midland Gold service is £70.

Store cards are generally more expensive than other credit cards, and can only be used in the shops which offer them. Marks and Spencer customers currently pay an APR of 22.4%.

PRICING POLICY

Essential Vocabulary

additional cost – дополнительная стоимость

allow for v – предусматривать; учитывать; принимать во внимание

average cost – средняя стоимость

brand loyalty – приверженность потребителя к данной марке товара

charge a price – назначить цену

competitive pricing – конкурентное ценообразование

cost-plus pricing – ценообразование по принципу «затраты плюс прибыль»

deter –удерживать, не допускать

drive out – вытеснять

dumping pricing – демпинговые цены

establish a market share – завоевать место на рынке

estimate v – оценивать, устанавливать цену

limit-pricing – ограничение цен, введение предельной цены

loss leader pricing – тактика занижения цены

make an estimate – производить оценку, составлять смету

marginal costs – предельные издержки производства, предельно высокая себестоимость

marginal-cost pricing – ценообразование на основе предельно высоких затрат

mark-up – наценка

non-price – неценовой

non-price competition – неценовая конкуренция

penetration pricing – тактика входящей цены

predatory pricing – хищническое ценообразование

price discrimination – разброс цен, ценовая дискриминация

price plateau – соотношение цен

pricing – ценообразование

pricing method – метод ценообразования

pricing policy – политика ценообразования, политика цен

set the price – устанавливать цены

skim the top end - «снять пенку» на максимальной точке

skimming price – ценообразование по методу снятия сливок

standard price – единая цена

 

Price is a very important weapon that can be used to persuade consumers to buy. Price is one of many factors that determine the demand for a product.

How firms set the price of their goods and services is a complicated issue. A number of factors will affect the price a firm sets for its product, including such things as the cost of producing the product, the rival firms' prices, the type of product and the desired market share of the company.

Pricing Methods

The most common pricing methods adopted by firms are:

1. Cost-plus pricing is a very simple pricing method and is perhaps the most common. A firm may calculate its average costs of producing a product and then simply add a profit 'mark-up', say 10%, on to average costs. This mark-up could be changed to allow for the effects of competition and economic conditions, e.g. where there is a lot of competition this mark-up may be lowered or when business is good the markup could be raised.

2. Marginal-cost pricing differs from the above in that the firm looks not at its average costs but at marginal costs, i.e. the firm calculates the additional cost of producing the next unit onset of units of output and the firm charges a price (plus а'mark-up') according to the marginal cost, A typical example is found in the shoe repair business. There appear to be no standard prices for repairing shoes. What tends to happen is that the cobbler examines the shoes and makes aquick estimate of how much material and time it will take to repair them. Larger shoes, those made of leather and those in greater disrepair have a higher marginal cost and therefore a higher price is charged for their repair.

3. Price discrimination: several firms are able to charge different prices for a similar product. This is known as price discrimination. British Rail (BR), for example, charges different consumers such as businessmen and women, children, senior citizens and students different prices and also charges different prices according to the time of the journey, e.g. peak, off-peak, weekly and weekend. British Telephones (ВТ) price discriminates according to the time of day, week and distance of the call. The price charged to the consumer is made up of two elements: a fixed charge or quarterly rental, which is designed to cover BT's fixed costs, and a variable charge related to the use of the phone. The ability of a firm to price discriminates on whether it can split or segment its market. In the case of ВТ and BR this is quite straightforward. Other industries and firms also price discriminate, e.g. the breweries charge different prices in the different regions of the country, cinemas offer cheap tickets for afternoon and late shows, and the Electricity Boards operate an Economy 7 system where consumers pay less for nighttime electricity.

Pricing Strategies

In addition to adopting particular pricing method, a firm can also follow a number of pricing strategies or tactics. The more common of these include:

Penetration pricing is a tactic adopted by a company when it is first entering (or penetrating) a market and is trying to establish a market share. It tends to be used where there is very little or no consumer 'brand loyalty' and the demand for the goods is price elastic.

Skimming price is where a firm charges a high price for a product in order to 'skim' the 'top end' of the market. It is most likely to be found where the product is new and consumers have not had a chance to establish a 'price plateau'. This refers to the price that consumers expect to pay for a product, e.g. would anybody expect to pay 40p for a standard size Mars bar? Clearly this would be above the price plateau. When products are new, a price plateau has not had the chance to be established and some consumers are willing to pay a high price to buy the new product because of its novelty value.

Loss leader pricing is when firms offer prices below the cost of producing the item (hence making a loss) in order to encourage the sale of the products. Supermarkets frequently adopt this tactic to entourage people into the stores so that once inside they may buy additional items on impulse.

Limit-pricing occurs when a firm, which normally has a large market share, drops the price of its product to limit or deter the entry of other new competitors. The success of this strategy depends on the size of the price drop, the potential profits to be gained by new firms, and the determination of other firms to enter the industry.

Predatory pricing typically occurs when a firm holds the price of its product below those of its rivals for long periods of time in the hope of driving them out of the industry and establishing a monopoly position.

Dumping pricing happens when a firm 'dumps' its goods into a market at below the cost of producing them in the hope that it can establish a foothold in the market. Once a market has been established the price of the product may rise to those of competitor firms.

Competitive pricing is when the firm prices its product in line with those of its competitors. There is little price variation between the types of goods being sold. In this situation there may be a substantial amount of 'non-price' competition, e.g. on packaging and design of the product.