Historical Background and Linguistic Situation

1. When the first people arrived to Britain 50000 B.C. it was still part of the continent. Later, 5000 B.C., at the end of the Ice Age, Britain became an island separated from the rest of Europe by the English Channel.

 

2. The first distinctive inhabitants of the British Isles were the Iberians who came from the territory of present-day Spain around 3000 B.C. They were known for their stone work and battle axes made of stone.

 

3. The Beaker Falk who came from Eastern Europe around 2000 B.C. were known for their pottery.

 

4. The Picts came around 1000 B.C. They were considered to be a mixture of the Celts and the Iberians and were called so because they were covered all over with paintings and tattoos. Their language is still a mystery for the scholars – it can be easily read but the scholars cannot decode it (cannot understand what is written).

 

5. The next to come were the Celts. They arrived in 700 B.C. from the territory of Central and Northern Europe. There were 2 main Celtic tribes that settled in the British Isles:

 

Tribe	Scots	Britons
Place of Settlement	first they settled in Ireland and then moved to Scotland and intermixed with the Picts	settled in the south-east of England
Celtic Languages	The Gaelic Branch	The Britonnic Branch
1. Irish/Erse (Ireland)	1. Breton (Brittany, modern France)
2. Scotch Gaelic (the Scottish Highlands)	2. Welsh (Wales)
3. Manx (dead; the Isle of Man)	3. Cornish (dead; Cornwall)

 

The Celts also had their own ancient alphabet called Ogham (additional information).

 

6. The Romans:

55 B.C. – Julius Caesar attacked Britain. Reasons:

· economic (tin ore, corn, slaves);

· political (the Romans fought with the Celts of Gaul on the continent who found shelter in Britain and were supported by the Celts of Britain).

Soon after his arrival, Julius Caesar left Britain with many slaves and riches.

 

43 A.D. – Emperor Claudius conquered Britain and it became a province of the Roman Empire. Contributions:

· paved roads;

· cities (trading centres);

· walls (protection from the Celts – e.g. Hadrian’s Wall between England and Scotland);

· Latin language (literacy).

 

410 A.D. – the Roman Empire began to collapse and the Roman troops were withdrawn from Britain and sent home to help and preserve the Empire.

 

7. After the 5^th c. the 3 waves of the Germanic tribes arrived to Britain:

Wave	1^st	2^nd	3^rd
Tribe	Jutes or/and Frisians	Saxons	Angles
Kingdoms	Kent, Isle of Wight	Sussex	Essex	Wessex	East Anglia	Mercia	Northumbria

The feudal system that the Germanic tribes brought with themselves had led to the isolation of each tribe and political disunity (feudal wars). As a result, this period witnessed a great dialectal diversity. The most important dialects were the dialects of the 4 most powerful kingdoms:

 

Old English Dialects

 

Kingdom	Kent	Wessex	Mercia	Northumbria
Dialect	Kentish	West Saxon	Mercian	Northumbrian
Spoken	in Kent, Surrey, the Isle of Wight	along the Thames and the Bristol Channel	between the Thames and the Humber	between the Humber and the Forth
Origin	from the tongues of Jutes/ Frisians	a Saxon dialect	a dialect of north Angles	a dialect of south Angles
Remarks		9^th c. – Wessex was the centre of the English culture and politics. West Saxon – the bookish type of language (Alfred the Great – the patron of culture and learning)		8^th c. – Northumbria was the centre of the English culture

 

The first historian who started to record the history of the Germanic tribes on the British Isles and is considered to be the first English historian is Bede the Venerable, an English monk, who wrote “The Ecclesiastical History of the English People”.

 

The most important dialect in the Old English period was the WEST SAXON DIALECT.

 

8. Christianity – 597 (6^th c.)

 

There were 2 forces that worked together to spread Christianity in Britain:

· missioners from Rome (founded the religious centre in Canterbury);

· missioners from Ireland (the Celts were already christened).

 

Consequences:

· centralization of the country;

· development of the culture and learning (monasteries, schools, etc.); Latin was the language of the church and learning.

 

9. In the 8^th – 9^th c. Britain was raided and attacked by the Danes/Scandinavians/Vikings. The only king who was able to keep them at bay was Alfred the Great of Wessex. In 878 the Treaty of Wedmore was signed and England was divided into Wessex (belonged to Alfred) and Danelaw (belonged to the Danes). But as soon as the Scandinavian dialects also belonged to the Germanic group, the Danes soon linguistically merged into the local Old English dialects leaving some Scandinavian elements in them.

Lecture 6

Old English Written Records

Alphabets

The first Old English written records are considered to be the runic inscriptions. To make these inscriptions people used the Runes/the Runic Alphabet – the first original Germanic Alphabet.

Runes/Runic Alphabet:

· appeared in the 3^rd – 4^th c. A.D.;

· it was also called Futhark (after the first 6 letters of this alphabet);

· the word “rune” meant “secret, mystery” and was used to denote magic inscriptions on objects made of wood, stone, metal;

· each symbol indicated a separate sound (one symbol = one sound);

· the symbols were angular due to the fact that they had to be carved on hard materials;

· the number of symbols: GB – 28-33; on the continent – 16-24).

See the copy of the alphabet (additional information)

 

Best known Runic Inscriptions:

1. Franks Casket – a box with 4 sides made of whale bone, each side contained a picture in the centre and runic inscriptions around the picture that told the story of the whale bone in alliterative verse.

2. Ruthwell Cross – was found near thevillage of Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire, it is a 15 feet tall stone cross ornamented in all sides with runic inscriptions that are actually a passage from a religious poem “The Dream of the Rood”.

Old English Alphabet

The Old English Alphabet was borrowed from Latin, but there were also some letters that were borrowed from the Runic Alphabet:

·? (“thorn”) = [q] and [ð]

·? (“wynn”) = [w]

·? (“mann”) = stood for OE word “man”

·? (“dæζ”) = stood for OE word “day”

Some new letters were introduced:

· ζ = [g] and [j];

· ð/þ/Đ/đ = [q] and [ð];

· æ = a ligature of [a] and [e];

· œ = a ligature of [o] and [e].

Rules of Reading:

They resemble the modern rules, with several exceptions though:

1. f = [v] --- 1. between vowels;

s = [z] 2. between a vowel and a voiced consonant ([r, m, n, l, d, etc.]).

ð/þ = [ð]

2. ζ – [j] – between and after front vowels ([e, i, æ]);

– [g] – initially and between back vowels ([a, o, u]).

3. cζ = [gg].

4. c = [k].

5. n = [ŋ] when fallowed by [k] or [g].

See also § 111-113 on p. 71-74 in “История английского языка” by Т.А. Расторгуева (copies).

 

 

Old English Manuscripts

Most of the Old English manuscripts were written in Latin characters. The Latin Alphabet was modified by the scribes to suit the English language (some letters were changed and some new letters were added (see examples above)). The Old English manuscripts that give us the examples of the language of that period are:

· personal documents containing names and place names;

· legal documents (charters);

· glosses to the Gospels and other religious texts (Latin-English vocabularies for those who did not know Latin good enough to understand the texts);

· textual insertions (pieces of poetry).

See § 110, p. 69-70 in “История английского языка” by Т.А. Расторгуева (a table “Principal Old English Written Records” (copies)).

 

Old English Poetry

1. Among the earliest textual insertions in Old English are the peaces of Old English poetry. They are to be found in “The Ecclesiastical History of the English People” written in Latin in the 8^th c. by Bede the Venerable, an English monk. These two pieces are:

· 5 lines know as “Bede’s Death Song”;

· 9 lines of a religious poem “Cædmon’s Hymn”.

2. All in all we have about 30 000 lines of OE verse from many poets, but most of them are unknown or anonimuos. The two best known Old English poets are Cædmon and Cynewulf (Northumbrian authors).

3. The topics of Old English poetry:

· heroic epic (“Beowulf”, the oldest in the Germanic literature, 7^th c., was written in Mercian or Northumbrian but has come down to us only in a 10^th c. West Saxon copy. It is based on old legends about the tribal life of the ancient Teutons and features the adventures and fights of the legendary heroes);

· lyrical poems (“The Wanderer”, “The Seafarer”, etc. Most of the poems are ascribed to Cynewulf);

· religious poems (“Fate of the Apostles” (probably Cædmon), “Dream of the Rood”, etc.).

4. The peculiarities of Old English poetry:

· written in Old Germanic alliterative verse:

- the lines are not rhymed;

- the number of the syllables in a line is free;

- the number of stressed syllables in a line is fixes;

- the line is usually divided into 2 halves, each half starts with one and the same

sound; this sound may be repeated also in the middle of each half

(As an example see an abstract from “Beowulf” on p. 8 in “A Reader in the History of English” by Е.К. Щука.)

· a great number of synonyms (e.g. beorn, sec ζ, ζ uma, wer were all the synonyms of “man”) and metaphorical phrases or compounds describing the qualities or functions of a thing (e.g. hronrād “whale-road” (for “sea”); bānhūs “bone-house” (for “a person’s body”); hēaþu-swāt “war-sweat” (for “blood”)).

 

 

H/w:

1. § 108, p. 67-68 in “История английского языка” by Т.А. Расторгуева (examination question) (copies).

2. § 110, p. 69-70 in “История английского языка” by Т.А. Расторгуева (a table “Principal Old English Written Records”) (copies)

2. Read the lecture and § 111-113 on p. 71-74 in “История английского языка” by Т.А. Расторгуева (copies).

3. Using your knowledge of the Old English Alphabet and the rules of reading read an abstract from “Beowulf” on p. 8 in “A Reader in the History of English” by Е.К. Щука and try to identify the features/peculiarities of Old English poetry in it (copies).

Lecture 7