Тексты для внеаудиторного чтения

Text 1

 

INTRODUCTION IN ECONOMIC THEORY

 

Human beings, unfortunate creatures, are plagued with wants. We want, among other things, love, social recognition, and the material necessities and comforts of life. Our striving to improve our material well-being, to "make a living," is the concern of economics. More specifically, economics is the study of the behaviour of human beings in producing, distributing, and consuming material goods and services in a world of scarce resources. But we need a more sophisticated definition of our subject matter. We are, indeed, characterized by both biologically and socially determined wants. We seek food, clothing, shelter, and a variety of goods and services which we associate with a comfortable or affluent standard of living. We are also blessed with certain aptitudes and are surrounded by quantities of property resources - both natural and manufactured. The obvious action is to use the available human and property resources - labour and managerial talents, tools and machinery, land and mineral deposits - to produce goods and services which satisfy these material wants. And this, of course, is precisely what is done through the organizational mechanism we call the economic system.

 

 

to plague мучить, надоедать

recognition признание, одобрение

to strive стараться, прилагать усилия

concern дело, отношение, касательство

to distribute распределять

scarce resources ограниченные ресурсы

sophisticated зд. сложный

affluent изобильный, богатый

aptitude склонность, способности

to surround окружат ь

available имеющийся в наличии

managerial административный, руководящий

to satisfy удовлетворят ь

precisely точно

through через

Text 2

 

ECONOMIC THEORY

 

 

The task of economic theory or analysis is to systematically arrange, interpret, and generalize upon facts. Principles and theories – the end result of economic analysis - bring order and meaning to a number of facts by tying these facts together, putting them in correct relationship to one another, and generalizing upon them. "Theories without facts may be barren, but facts without theories are meaningless."

Principles and theories are meaningful statements drawn from facts, but facts, in turn, serve as a constant check on the validity of principles already established. Facts - how individuals and institutions actually behave in producing, exchanging, and consuming goods and services change with time. This makes it essential that economists continuously check existing principles and theories against the changing economic environment. The history of economic ideas is strewn with once-valid generalizations about economic behaviour which were rendered obsolete.

 

to arrange располагать, классифицировать

to generalize обобщать

to tie связывать

relationship отношение

barren бессодержательный, лишенный интереса

meaningless бессмысленный

meaningful многозначительный

validity вескость, обоснованность

to establish устанавливать

essential существенный

existing существующий

environment окружение, окружающая обстановка

to strew разбрасывать

to render представлять

obsolete устарелый

Text 3

 

ECONOMICS AND EFFICIENCY

 

We have arrived once again at the basic definition of economics. Economics is the social science concerned with the problem of using or administering scarce resources (the means of producing) so as to attain the greatest or maximum fulfilment of society's unlimited wants {the goal of producing). Economics is concerned with "doing the best with what we have." If our wants are virtually unlimited and our. resources are- scarce, we cannot satisfy a11 society's material wants. The next best thing is to achieve the greatest possible satisfaction of these wants. Economics is a science of efficiency - efficiency in the use of scarce resources.

Precisely what is meant by efficiency as economists use the term? It means something similar to the term "efficiency" as used in engineering. The mechanical engineer tells us that a steam locomotive is only "10 percent efficient" because a large part - some 90 percent - of the energy in its fuel is not transformed into useful power but is wasted through friction and heat loss. The maximum output of usable power is not derived from the inputs of fuel.

Economic efficiency is also concerned with inputs and outputs. Specifically, it is concerned with the relationship between the units of scarce resources which are put into the process of production and the resulting output of some wanted product. More output from a given quantity of inputs designates an increase in efficiency. Less output from a given bundle of inputs indicates a decline in efficiency.

 

 

efficiency эффективность

to arrive прибывать

definition определение

to attain достигать, добиваться

fulfilment выполнять

to achieve достигать

engineering машиностроение

steam locomotive паровоз

fuel топливо

to waste терять, тратить впустую

friction трение

loss потеря, убыток

to derive получать, извлекать

input ввод

output отдача, мощность

to designate обозначать, указывать

Text 4

 

THE RESOURCE MARKET

 

What about the shape of the supply and demand curves in the resource market? As in the product market, resource supply curves are typically upsloping, and resource demand curves are downsloping. Why?

Resource supply curves generally slope upward; that is, they reflect a direct relationship between resource price and quantity supplied, because it is in the interest of resource owners themselves to supply more of a particular resource at a high-price than at i low price. High income payments in a particular occupation or industry encourage households to supply more of their human and property resources. Low- income payments discourage resource owners from supplying resources in this particular occupation or industry and, as a matter of fact, encourage them to supply their resources elsewhere.

On the demand side, businesses tend to buy less of a given resource as its price rises, and they tend to substitute other relatively low-priced resources for it. Entrepreneurs will find it profitable to substitute low- for high-priced resources. More of a particular resource will be demanded at a low price than at a high price. The result? A downsloping demand curve for the various resources.

 

 

market рынок

shape форма

supply снабжение, поставка, запас

demand требование, потребность, спрос

curve кривая, изгиб

upsloping зд. подниматься

that is то есть

income доход

to encourage воодушевлять, способствовать

property собственность

to tend иметь тенденцию

to substitute заменять

profitable выгодный

particular частный, определенный

relatively относительно

Text 5

 

PURE CAPITALISM

 

Pure, or laissez faire, capitalism is characterized by the private ownership of resources and the use of a system of markets and prices to coordinate and direct economic activity. In such a system each participant is motivated by his or her own selfinterests; each economic unit seeks.to maximize its income through individual decision making. The market system functions as a mechanism through which individual decisions and preferences are communicated and coordinated. As a result, economic power is widely dispersed. Advocates of pure capitalism argue that such an economy is conducive to efficiency in the use of resources, output and employment stability, and rapid economic growth. Hence, there is little or no need for government planning, control, or intervention. Indeed, the term laissez faire roughly translates as "let it be," that is, keep the government from interfering with the economy. The reason is that such interference will disturb the efficiency with which the market system functions. Government's role is therefore limited to the protection of private property and establishing an appropriate legal framework to facilitate the functioning of free markets.

 

 

pure чистый

private частный

ownership собственность

direct прямой, непосредственный

activity деятельность

participant участник

to seek искать, стремиться

decision решени е

to disperse рассеиваться, распространяться

conductive благоприятный, способствующий ч-л

rapid быстрый, скорый

intervention вмешательство

roughly грубо, приблизительно

interference вмешательство

appropriate подходящий, соответственный

to facilitate способствовать, содействовать

Text 6

 

NEED FOR MONETARY CONTROL

 

Our illustration of the banking system's ability to create money rests upon the assumption that commercial banks are willing to exercise their abilities to create money by lending and that households and businesses are willing

to borrow. In reality the willingness of banks to lend on the basis of excess reserves varies cyclically and therein lies the rationale for governmental control of the money supply in v order to promote economic stability.

When prosperity reigns banks can be expected to expand credit to the maximum of their ability. Why not? Loans are interest earning assets and in good times there is 1ittle fear of borrowers' defaulting. But the money supply has an important effect upon aggregate demand. By lending and thereby creating money to the maximum of their ability during prosperity, commercial banks may contribute to excessive aggregate demand and to the resulting inflation.

 

 

ability способность

to create создавать

assumption предположение, допущение

to lend давать взаймы, ссужать

to borrow брать взаймы

excess избыток, излишек

to promote продвигать, способствовать

prosperity процветание

to reign править

to expand расширять

loan заем

asset активы, вклады

default невыполнение обязательств

aggregate общий

to contribute делать вклад

Text 7

 

NEED FOR MONETARY CONTROL (part II)

 

If depression clouds appear on the economic horizon, bankers may hastily withdraw their invitations to borrow, seeking the safety of liquidity (excess reserves) even if it involves the sacrifice of potential interest income. Bankers may fear the large-scale withdrawal of deposits by a panicky public and simultaneously doubt the ability of borrowers to repay. It is not too surprising that during some years of the Great Depression of the 1930s, banks had considerable excess reserves but lending was at a low ebb. The general point is that during recession banks may decrease the money supply by cutting back on lending. This contraction of the money supply will tend to restrain aggregate demand and to intensify the recession. A rapid shrinkage of the money supply contributed to the Great Depression of' the1930s.

Our overall conclusion is that profit-motivated bankers can be expected to vary the money supply so as to reinforce cyclical fluctuations. It is for this reason that the Federal

Reserve System has at its disposal certain policy instruments designed to control the money supply in an anticyclica1, rather than procyclica1, fashion. (It is to an analysis of these policy tools.).

 

 

to appear появляться

nastily поспешно

to withdraw изымать, отзывать

liquidity ликвидность

to involve вовлекать

sacrifice жертва, убыток

income доход

deposit вклад

simultaneously одновременно

ebb упадок, спад

recession упадок, спад

to decrease уменьшать(ся), убывать

to restrain сдерживать

shrinkage сокращение

fluctuation неустойчивость, колебание

Text 8

COMPETITION AND CONTROL:

THE "INVISIBLE HAND"

 

 

Though the market system is the organizing mechanism of pure capitalism, it is essential to recognize the role of competition as the mechanism of control in such an economy. The market mechanism of supply and demand communicates the wants of consumers (society) to businesses and through businesses to resource suppliers. It is competition, however, which forces businesses and resource suppliers to make appropriate responses. To illustrate: We have seen that an increase in consumer demand for some product will raise that good's price above the wage, rent, interest, and normal profit costs of production. The resulting economic profits in effect are a signal to producers that society wants more of the product. It is competition - in particular, the ability of new firms to enter the industry that simultaneously brings an expansion of output and a lowering of price back to a level just consistent with production costs. However, if the industry was not competitive, but was dominated by, say, one huge firm (a monopolist) which was able to prohibit the entry of potential competitors, that firm could continue to enjoy economic profits by preventing the expansion of the industry.

 

 

сompetition соревнование, конкуренция

consumer потребитель

increase увеличение

to raise поднимать

wage заработная плата

interest процент

profit прибыль

consistent стойкий

competitive конкурентоспособный

to prohibit запрещать

entry вхождение, вступление

to prevent предотвращать, препятствовать

expansion расширение

Text 9

COMPETITION AND CONTROL: THE "INVISIBLE HAND"

(Part II)

 

But competition does more than guarantee responses appropriate to the wishes of society. It is competition which forces firms to adopt the most efficient productive techniques. In a competitive market, the failure of some firms to use the least costly production technique means their eventual elimination by other competing firms which do employ the most efficient methods of production. Finally, we have seen that competition provides an environment conducive to technological advance.

A very remarkable aspect of the operation and the adjustments of a competitive market system is that a curious and important identity is involved – the identity of private and social interests. That is, firms and resource suppliers, seeking to further their own self-interest and operating within the framework of a highly competitive market system, will simultaneously, as though guided by an "invisible hand," promote the public or social interest. For example, we have seen that given a competitive environment, business firms use the least costly combination of resources in producing a given output because it is in their private self- interest to do so. To act otherwise would be to forgo profits or even to risk bankruptcy over a period of time. But, at the same time, it is clearly also in the social interest to use scarce resources in the least costly, that is, most efficient, manner.

 

 

response ответ, отклик

to adopt принимать

failure неуспех, неудача

the least наименьший

eventual возможный, окончательный

elimination исключение, устранение

to employ применять

to provide снабжать, обеспечивать

advance улучшение, продвижение

remarkable замечательный

adjustment регулирование, корректировка

identity идентичность

forgo предшествовать

bankruptcy банкротство

efficient эффективность

Text 10

COMPETITION AND CONTROL: "INVISIBLE HAND"

(Part III)

 

 

It is clearly in the social interest to use scarce resources in the least costly, that is, most efficient, manner. Not to do so would be to produce a given output at a greater cost or sacrifice of alternative goods than is really necessary. Furthermore, it is self-interest system, awakened and guided by the competitive market, which induces the very responses appropriate.. to the assumed change in society's wants. Businesses seeking to make higher profits and to avoid losses, on the one hand, and resource suppliers pursuing greater monetary rewards, on the other, negotiate the very changes in the allocation of resources and therefore the composition of output which society now demands. The force of competition, in other words, controls or guides the self-interest motive in such a way that it automatically, and quite unintentionally, furthers the best interests of society. The "invisible hand" concept tells us that when firms maximize their profits, society's national output is also maximized.

 

 

to produce производить

alternative альтернативный

necessary необходимый

furthermore более того

to induce побуждать, вызывать, стимулировать

assumed предполагаемый

to avoid избегать

to pursue гнаться за

reward награда, вознаграждение

to negotiate договариваться

allocation распределение

Text 11

 

THE FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENT

 

In contrast with the passive, limited government envisioned in the ideology of pure capitalism, the public sector is an active and integral component of our economy. In particular, the economy of the United States has taken note of the important elements of truth in the criticisms of the market system. Through government, society has taken steps designed to correct these shortcomings. Therefore, government pursues policies intended not only to preserve and holster competition, but also to adjust certain inequities fostered by the market system, to encourage appropriate resource reallocations when external benefits and costs are significant, to meet collective wants, and to help maintain full employment.

Is our analysis of the market system realistic? Does it provide a workable description of the market system of American capitalism? One scholar has responded to these questions as follows:

For all the new quality of twentieth-century industrial society, the great principles of self-interest and competition, however watered down or hedged about, still provide basic rules of behaviour which no economic organization can afford to disregard entirely... the laws of the market can be discerned... if we look beneath the surface.

 

 

to envision воображать, представлять

public sector общественный сектор

integral неотъемлемый

to take note принять к сведению

designed предназначенный

shortcoming недостаток, дефект

to intend намереваться, иметь в виду

to preserve coхранить

inequity несправедливость

to foster поощрять, благоприятствовать

benefit выгода, польза

significant значительный

employment работа, служба, применение

to afford позволить себе

Text 12

 

MONEY AS DEBT

 

The first point to recognize is that the major components of the money supply – paper money and checkable deposits – are debts, or promises to pay. Paper money is the circulating debt of the Federal Reserve Banks. Checkable deposits are the debts of commercial banks and thrift institutions.

Furthermore, paper currency and checkable deposits have no intrinsic value. A $5 bill is just a piece of paper, and a checkable deposit is merely bookkeeping entry. Nor will government redeem the paper money you hold for anything tangible, such as gold. In effect, we have chosen to "manage" our money supply in seeking to provide the amount of money needed for that particular volume of business activity which one hopes wi11 foster full employment, price level stability, and a healthy rate of economic growth. Most economists feel that such management of the money supply is more sensible than linking the money supply to gold or any other commodity whose supply might arbitrarily and capriciously change. The important point is that paper money cannot be converted into a fixed amount of gold or some other precious metal but is exchangeable only for other pieces of paper money. The government will swap one paper $5 bill for another bearing a different serial number. That is all you can get should you ask the government to redeem some of the paper money you hold.

 

 

to recognize узнать, определить

debt долг

promise обещание

thrift экономность, бережливость

intrinsic внутренний, существенный

value ценность

volume объем

to redeem выплачивать, возмещать

tangible материальный, заметный

amount cумма, количество

rate норма, ставка, темп

sensible разумный

commodity предмет потребления, товар

precious драгоценный

to swap = to swop менять, обмениваться (разг.)

Text 13

 

MONEY AND BANKING

 

Money – one of our truly great inventions - constitutes

a most fascinating aspect of economic science.

Money bewitches people. They fret for it, and they sweat for it. They devise most ingenious ways to get it, and most ingenuous ways to get rid of it. Money is the only commodity that is good for nothing but to be gotten rid of.

It will not feed you, clothe you, shelter you, or amuse you unless you spend it or invest it. It imparts value only in parting. People wi11 do almost anything for money, and money wilI do almost anything for people. Money is a captivating, circulating, masquerading puzzle."

Money is also one of the most crucial elements of economic science. It is much more than a passive component of the economic system - a mere tool for facilitating the economy's operation. When operating properly, the monetary system is the lifeblood of the circular flows of income and expenditure which typify all economies. A well- behaved money system is conducive to both full production and full employment.

Conversely, a malfunctioning monetary system can make major contributions to severe fluctuations in the economy's levels of output, employment, and prices, and can distort the allocation

of resources.

 

 

invention изобретение

to constitute составлять

fascinating очаровательный

to bewitch очаровывать

to fret беспокоить, мучить

to sweat потеть

to devise придумывать

ingenious изобретательный, остроумный

ingenuous бесхитростный

to get rid of отделаться, избавиться

to impart придавать

captivating очаровательный

puzzle загадка

crucial решающий

lifeblood источник жизненной силы

expenditure трата, расход

to typify олицетворять

conducive благоприятный, способствующий

to distort искажать

Text 14

 

THE BANKING SYSTEM: MULTIPLE-DEPOSIT

EXPANSION (INTRODUCTION TO ANALYSIS)

 

A single bank in a banking system can lend dollar for

dollar with its excess reserves. Now what of the lending ability of all commercial banks taken as a groups Jumping to our conclusions, we shall find that the commercial banking system can lend, that is, can create money, by a multiple of its excess reserves. This multiple lending is accomplished despite the fact that each bank in the system can only lend dollar for dollar with its excess reserves. The immediate task is to uncover how these seemingly paradoxical conclusions come about.

To do this, it is necessary that we keep our analysis as uncluttered as possible. Therefore, we shall rely upon three simplifying assumptions. First, suppose that the reserve ratio for a11 commercial banks is 20 percent. Second, assume initially that all banks are exactly meeting this 20 percent reserve requirement. No excess reserves exist; all banks are "loaned up." Third, we shall suppose that if any bank becomes able to increase its loans as a result of acquiring excess reserves, an amount equal to these excess reserves will be loaned to one borrower, who will write a check for the entire amount of the loan and give it to someone else, who deposits the check in another bank.

 

 

conclusion заключение

multiple многократный, многочисленный

to accomplish достигать, завершать

despite несмотря на

immediate немедленный

seemingly по-видимому

to come about происходить, случаться

to uncover раскрыват ь

uncluttered без помех, без суеты

to rely upon полагаться на

ratio соотношение

requirement требование

to acquire приобретать, овладевать

entire полный, целый, весь

to exist существовать

Text 15

 

ECONOMIC GROWTH

 

Much efforts have been concentrated upon the causes

of short-run fluctuations in employment and price levels and upon policies which might mitigate such instability. Of equal importance is the issue of economic growth to which we now turn.

Although punctuated by periods of cyclical instability, economic growth in the United States has been impressive. For example, during this century real output has increased twelvefold and population has tripled to yield approximately a quadrupIing of the goods-and services available t o t he average American. Our discussion of growth will be organized as follows. First, we want to understand how growth is defined and why it is important. Our second goal is to gain some analytical perspective on economic growth. Our third objective is to present and assess the long-term growth record of the United States. Fourth, we want to understand the quantitative importance of the various factors which contribute to growth. Fifth, we seek to explain the slowdown in the productivity growth of American labour which began in the 1970s. Finally, we will briefly examine the controversy surrounding growth and take a fleeting look at policies to promote growth.

 

 

effort усилие, попытка

cause причина

level уровень

to mitigate смягчать, уменьшать

issue суть, результат

although хотя

impressive значительный, впечатляющий

twelvefold в двенадцать раз больший

to triple утраиваться

to yield уступать, соглашаться

approximately приблизительно

quadruple учетверенный, четырехкратный

average средний

to gain добывать, получать

controversy спор, полемика

Text 16

 

BASIC PLANNING PROBLEM: COORDINATION

 

It is no simple matter to sweep away the guiding function of the market system, as Russia has done, and replace it with an effective central plan. The market system is a powerful organizing force which coordinates millions upon millions of individual decisions by consumers, entrepreneurs, and resource suppliers and fosters a reasonably efficient allocation of resources. Is central planning a satisfactory substitute for the market?

The core of the planning problem is revealed by the fact that the various industries or sectors of the economy are highly interdependent. For example, suppose the decision is made to increase the output of motor vehicles by, say, 10 percent. This is not a single, isolated directive, but rather a decision which implies a myriad of related decisions for fulfilment. Thus decisions must be made to increase the production of tires, glass, paint fabrics, various metals, and all of the myriad components which comprise an automobile or truck. Additional factories to assemble the components and expanded transportation facilities may be required to bring the various inputs to their proper locations. In turn, the tire, glass, and paint industries – in fact, a11 of the industries producing vehicle inputs - will themselves require more inputs to accomplish their enlarged production goals.

The point is that all these planning directives must be made and accomplished if production bottlenecks are to be avoided.

 

 

to sweep away сметать, уничтожать

to replace заменить

entrepreneur предприниматель

satisfactory удовлетворительный

substitute заменитель, замена

core ядро, центр

to reveal открывать, обн аруживать

interdependent взаимозависимый

vehicle средство передвижения

to imply значить, предполагать

to comprise включать

to assemble собирать(ся)

proper правильный, должный

in turn в свою очередь

Text 17

 

RUSSIA: BASIC PLANNING PROBLEM: COORDINATION

(Part II)

 

 

Let us look at the matter from a slightly different vantage point: Even if an internally consistent set of decisions - a perfectly coordinated plan – could be constructed by the central planners, the failure of any single industry to fulfil its output target would cause an almost endless chain of adverse repercussions. If iron mines – for want of machinery or labour or transportation inputs – fail to supply the steel industry with the required inputs of iron ore, the steel industry in turn wi11 be unable to fulfil the input needs of the myriad industries dependent upon steel. All these steel-using industries will therefore be unable to fulfil their planned production goals. And so the bottleneck chain reaction goes on to all those firms which use steel parts or components as inputs.

It is difficult to overstate the problem of coordinating the vast number of economic units which comprise the Soviet economy. There are now some 200,000 industrial enterprises producing goods in Russia. The central planners must see to it that all the resources needed by these enterprises to fulfil their assigned production targets are somehow allocated to them.

 

 

matter суть, вопрос

different другой, различный

vantage более выгодный

internal внутренний

target цель, мишень

endless бесконечный

adverse противоположный, неприятный

repercussion отражение (события), отзвук

ore руда

chain цепь

vast огромный

to assign назначать, определять

somehow как-нибудь, как-то

Text 18

 

FULL EMPLOYMENT AND FULL PRODUCTION

 

Society wants to use its scarce resources efficiently; that is, it wants to get the maximum amount of useful goods and services produced with its limited resources. To achieve this it must realize both fu11 employment and fu11 production.

By full employment we mean that all available resources should be employed. No workers should be involuntarily out of work; the economy should provide employment for all who are willing and able to work. Nor should capital equipment or arable land sit idle. Note we say all availab1e resources should be employed. Each society has certain customs and practices which determine what particular resources are available for employment.

By full production we simply mean that resources should be allocated efficiently; that is, employed resources should be utilized so as to make the most valuable contribution to total output. We should avoid allocating astrophysicists to farming and experienced farmers to our space research centres! Nor do we want Iowa's farmland planted to cotton and Alabama's to corn when experience indicates that the opposite assignment would provide the nation substantially more of both products from the same amount of land. Fu11 production also implies that the best-available technologies are employed.

 

 

society общество

useful полезный

involuntarily невольно, ненамеренно

equipment оборудование

arable пахотный

idle незанятый, пустой, бездействующий

custom обычай

to determine определять

to utilize использовать

valuable ценный

total общий

experienced опытный

cotton хлопок

corn зерно

opposite противоположный

Text 19

 

FREEDOM OF ENTERPRISE AND CHOICE

 

Closely related to private ownership of property is freedom of enterprise and choice. Capitalism charges its component economic units with the responsibility of making certain choices, which are registered and made effective through the free markets of the economy.

Freedom of enterprise means that under pure capitalism, private business enterprises are free to obtain economic resources, to organize these reources in the production of a good or service of the firm's own choosing, and to sell it in the markets of their choice.

Freedom of choice means that owners of property resources and money capital can employ or dispose of these resources as they see fit. It also means that labourers are free to enter any of those lines of work for which they are qualified. Finally, it means that consumers are at liberty, within the limits of their money incomes, to buy that collection of goods and services which they feel is most appropriate in satisfying their wants. Freedom of consumer choice may well be the most profound of these freedoms. The consumer is in a particularly strategic position in a capitalistic economy; in a sense, the consumer is sovereign.

Again, broad legal limitations prevail in the expression of all these free choices.

 

 

closely тесно

freedom свобода

choice выбор

to charge нагружать, обременять

responsibility ответственность

to obtain получать, добывать

to sell продавать

to dispose располагать, размещать

fit годный, подходящий

profound основательный, полный

sovereign суверенный, полновластный

broad широкий

to prevail превалировать, преобладать

 

СОДЕРЖАНИЕ

 

 

ПРОГРАММА ……………………………………….………………….3

МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ УКАЗАНИЯ…………………….………………...8

КОНТРОЛЬНЫЕ ЗАДАНИЯ………………………………….……...18

Контрольное задание № 1………………………………….………….18

Контрольное задание № 2…………………………………………….24

УСТНЫЕ ТЕМЫ……………………………………………………....30

ТЕКСТЫ ДЛЯ ВНЕАУДИТОРНОГО ЧТЕНИЯ…………………….47