Ministry of Education and Science Republic of Kazakhstan

Ministry of Education and Science Republic of Kazakhstan

Faculty of Energy, Oil and Gas Industry

Department of Oil and Gas engineering

Practice Report

 

Performed by: Zhumagul Orynbassar

Checked by: Aidana Muratbekova

 

 

Almaty 2016

Table of Contents

I. Introduction 3

II. Introduction to geophysics 4-6

III. Fundamentals of Drilling Engineering 6-8

IV. Introduction to Enhanced oil recovery 8-13

V. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering 14-17

VI. Formation Pressure 17-20

VII. Oil and gas gathering system 20-25

VIII. Motivation Lecture from Syzdykov M.K 25

X. Trip to Geological Museum 25

XI. Sedimentology 26

XII. Motivation lecture from Kuralkhanov D.K. 27

XIII. Well monitoring 27-28

XIV. Nanotechnology (Jim Lee) 28-29

XV. Intellectual Game 29-30

XVI. Trip to Charyn Canyon 30-32

XVII. Conclusion 33

XVIII. References 33

 

Introduction

From 16 to 28 of May the students of the second course of the oil and gas faculty last academic practice. Practice lasted two weeks for three hours per day. We acquainted with different materials and lectures related to the future of our profession. We were listen lectures of teachers such as Kuralkhanov D.K, Jim Lee, Syzdykov M.K, Abirov R.Zh and young undergraduates familiarize us with the master's project. Moreover, two excursions were organized, such as trip to the Geological Museum and a trip to Charyn Canyon.

In the process of practice, we have learned:

· Identify different forms of occurrence of geological bodies;

· visually diagnose the rocks;

· describe the exposure;

· to apply theoretical knowledge to solve practical problems;

· apply a particular method of development, based on the analysis of geological and geophysical field data;

· be able to predict the future impact of the method chosen by the volume of extraction of raw materials.

We were listen about ten lectures, such as Introduction to geophysics, Fundamentals of Drilling Engineering, Introduction to Enhanced oil recovery, Introduction to Reservoir Engineering, Formation Pressure, Oil and gas gathering system, Sedimentology, Well monitoring, Nanotechnology etc. The future I will focus in detail on each of them.

 

Introduction to geophysics

On the second day of our educational practice we studied the main parts of geology. The lecture was explained by Abylay Nadir. We have learnt it from the Petroleum Geology lessons, so that it was the revision that helped us to remember the information and to freshen up our memory. We have revised the three main types of rocks, the rock cycle, the physical and chemical properties of minerals such as porosity, permeability, saturation, capillary pressure and other properties. So, we understood that the rock cycle is is a group of changes. Igneous rock can change into sedimentary rock or into metamorphic rock. Sedimentary rock can change into metamorphic rock or into igneous rock. Metamorphic rock can change into igneous or sedimentary rock.

Igneous rock forms when magma cools and makes crystals. Magma is a hot liquid made of melted minerals. The minerals can form crystals when they cool. Igneous rock can form underground, where the magma cools slowly. Or, igneous rock can form above ground, where the magma cools quickly.

When it pours out on Earth's surface, magma is called lava. Yes, the same liquid rock matter that you see coming out of volcanoes.

On Earth's surface, wind and water can break rock into pieces. They can also carry rock pieces to another place. Usually, the rock pieces, called sediments, drop from the wind or water to make a layer. The layer can be buried under other layers of sediments. After a long time the sediments can be cemented together to make sedimentary rock. In this way, igneous rock can become sedimentary rock.

All rock can be heated. But where does the heat come from? Inside Earth there is heat from pressure (push your hands together very hard and feel the heat). There is heat from friction (rub your hands together and feel the heat). There is also heat from radioactive decay (the process that gives us nuclear power plants that make electricity).

So, what does the heat do to the rock? It bakes the rock.

Baked rock does not melt, but it does change. It forms crystals. If it has crystals already, it forms larger crystals. Because this rock changes, it is called metamorphic. Remember that a caterpillar changes to become a butterfly. That change is called metamorphosis. Metamorphosis can occur in rock when they are heated to 300 to 700 degrees Celsius.

When Earth's tectonic plates move around, they produce heat. When they collide, they build mountains and metamorphose (met-ah-MORE-foes) the rock.

The rock cycle continues. Mountains made of metamorphic rocks can be broken up and washed away by streams. New sediments from these mountains can make new sedimentary rock.

So, we can make a conclusion that the rock cycle never stops.

Let's look at the properties of minerals. Two separate characteristics of rocks control how effective they are as aquifers:

Porosity is a measure of how much of a rock is open space. This space can be between grains or within cracks or cavities of the rock.
Permeability is a measure of the ease with which a fluid (water in this case) can move through a porous rock.

Porosity and permeability are two distinct physical properties of solids. Porosity refers to the extent to which tiny pores or spaces exist within the solid. Permeability refers to the ability of a mass of solid to allow or restrain the passage of of fluids, that is gases or liquids, through itself. These two qualities are closely related. The fluids are able to permeate through a solid by passing through the pores it contains, and grater the number and size of pores in a given mass of solid, easier it is for the fluids to pass through. Thus in general higher porosity in a material is likely to be accompanied by higher permeability also.

Capillary pressure defined capillary pressure as the difference in pressure across the interface between two phases. Similarly, it has been defined as the pressure differential between two immiscible fluid phases occupying the same pores caused by interfacial tension between the two phases that must be overcome to initiate flow.

 

Exploration and production

Despite the enormous profits being realized by the “major oil companies”, and an estimated $150 billion spent on oil exploration and development in 2009, most of the money went to: Production from known reserves rather that seeking new ones!

Recovery mechanisms

Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) is:

· Oil recovery by injection of fluids not normally present in reservoir

· Excludes pressure maintenance or waterflooding

· Not necessarily tertiary recovery

Improved Oil Recovery (IOR) is:

· EOR plus additional technologies dealing with drilling, production, operations, and reservoir characterization

· An attempt to avoid negative connotation of EOR

EOR classification

Thermal EOR (Steam flooding):

· The thermal processes (steam injection) have the greatest certainty of success and potential applications in about 70% of enhanced oil recovery worldwide.

· Thermal methods also provide the highest recoveries at the lowest costs

Thermal EOR (In-situ combustion):

· Old technology (1960's)

· High Recovery Factor:

· up to 60% •Self-generation of energy (coke consumption)

· In situ upgrading (thermal cracking)

Microbial EOR

Microbes react with a carbon source, such as oil and produce surfactant, slimes (polymers), biomass and gases such as CH4, CO2, N2 and H2 as well as solvents and certain organic acids.

Conclusion

EOR production is increasing but slowly

n Despite a context of high oil price & increasing demand

n Today evolution technologies

n Steam is decreasing for very viscous crude

n Environmental impact of high water consumption

n Price of gas, high CO2 emissions for others

n CO2 is highly increasing

n Additional revenues for CCS

n Answer to global warming concern

n Chemical injection, mainly polymer flood

n Allow to enhance waterflood, widely used technology

n As a wide potential

n Not no expensive technology

 

Reserve Estimation

• The reserves are the main assets of an oil company.
• Quantifying reserves and recovery factor is an ongoing role of the reservoir engineer.
• Basic data not always straightforward.
• Reserves can be affected by the development process

 

Reserves

• Recoverable hydrocarbons
• OIP x recovery factor

Reserves are those quantities, which are anticipated to be commercially recovered from known accumulations from a given date forward.

There are two types reserves developed and undeveloped. Developed- proved reserves 90% probability that quantity will be produced or exceeded. Undeveloped is divided into two: probable (50%) and possible (10%).

Improving Recovery

Three phases of recovery

• Primary recovery
• recovery obtained through natural energy of the reservoir
• Secondary Recovery
• energy is supplemented by injection of fluids, gas or water. To maintain or partially maintain pressure.
• Two types of oil left.

1. High saturation in unswept par - bypassed oil

2. Lower saturation in swept part - residual oil saturation

• Enhanced oil recovery, EOR.

The target for by-passed and residual oil.

Hydrodynamic Pressure

• Arises as a result of fluid movement.
• This is the fluid potential pressure gradient which is caused by fluid flow
• Under certain conditions fluid pressures are not normal.

· Overpressured reservoirs.

· Hydrostatic pressure greater than normal pressure

· Underpressured reservoirs

 

Reservoir Temperature

• Earth temperature increases from surface to centre
• Heatflow outwards generates a geothermal gradient.
• Conforms to local and regional gradients as influenced by lithology, and more massive phenomena.
• Obtained from wellbore temperature surveys.
• Reservoir geothermal gradients around 1.6^oF/100ft (0.029K/m).
• Because of large thermal capacity and surface area of porous reservoir, flow processes in a reservoir occur at constant temperature.
• Local conditions, eg around the well can be influenced by transient cooling or heating effects of injected fluids.

Formation Pressures

Another interesting information was represented by Munsyzbayeva Dinara. The topic of the lecture is Formation Pressure.

Hydrostatic Pressure

The pressure at a given depth in a static liquid is a result the weight of the liquid acting on a unit area at that depth plus any pressure acting on the surface of the liquid

Pore Pressure

Abnormal Pressure

A “normally” pressured formation has a pore pressure equal to the hydrostatic pressure of the pore water. High pressures are called geopressures, overpressures and low pressures are called underpressures.

Overburden Pressure

The vertical pressure at any point in the earth is known as the overburden pressure. If not able to calculate the overburden can be assumed as 1 psi/ft.

Fracture Pressure

Types of separator

· Cylindrical

1. Horizontal separator

─ for high-pressure and medium-pressure service

2. Vertical separator

─ for low-pressure service (generally)

· Spherical separator

─ more compact and cheaper

─ limited separation space and liquid surge capacity

─ for low-volume remote platforms

 

Separators are classified

" two-phase " if they separate gas from the total liquid stream and

" three-phase " if they also separate the liquid stream into its crude oil and water components.

After free water removal, produced oil often contains excessive impurities which are required to be reduced to a value acceptable for transportation or sales:

· Dehydration/Desalting

 

It is usually the first process in crude oil processing. It involves removal of salt dissolved in the water in the crude oil. It is achieved by a process unit called desalter

There are also electrostatic dehydrators which enhance coalescing of small water droplets and assist in settling

· Emulsion Treatment

For an emulsion to exist there must be two mutually immiscible liquids, an emulsifying agent, and sufficient agitation to disperse the discontinuous phase into the continuous phase.

A common method for separating this emulsion is to heat the stream thereby deactivating the emulsifying agent, allowing the dispersed water droplets to collide. This is achieved by heater theaters.

The purpose of a desalting system: reducing the salt content of the treated oil to

acceptable levels.

Separating water vapor from natural gas before the gas is transported by pipeline

Main processes of water removal in gas processing:

1. Glycol(absorption)

2. Solid desiccant(adsorption) dehydration.

Glycol absorption method of dehydration is very similar to using absorption for NGL extraction but the main difference is the use of a glycol instead of an absorption oil.

It also entails the oil making contact with the glycol (e.g. TEG), an hygroscopic substance in a glycol tower, the rich glycol re-boiled and stripped of its water component in form of steam, flashed of its dissolved gas in a flash tank and fed again into the tower.

Solid desiccants like activated alumina, silica gel are filled into adsorption towers

As the wet gas passes through the tower, water molecules are retained on the surface of these desiccant beds leaving the dry gas to exit the bottom of the tower.

To regenerate the desiccant, a high temperature gas is passed through the saturated desiccant bed and vaporizes the water in the desiccant tower, leaving it dry for further use.

 

Some wastes

· Produced water

· Onshore, produced water will normally be re-injected in the formation to serve as artificial lift for wells which cannot further achieve optimal production by its natural drive mechanism

· It can also be pumped into a disposal well when not needed

· Gas flares

· Compressed gas could also be re-injected into the formation through injection wells to lighten the column of fluid and allow the reservoir pressure to force the fluid to the surface.

· At high pressure, the gas could also be used in Industrial power plants to generate electric power in large quantities that can be supplied to end users

· At low pressure, it can be used in internal combustion engines to power locomotives.

· Other wastes like deck drains are collected in a gathering system, treated and disposed overboard or added to the treated produce water for reinjection.

· Waste lube oil and waste lube oil filters are usually sent to offsite reclamation plant

In conclusion, it is important to note that the significance of a production facility is to separate the well stream into three components, typically called phases (oil, gas, and water), and process these phases into some marketable product(s) or dispose of them in an environmentally acceptable manner.

To achieve optimal production each process must be carried out efficiently.

Trip to Geological Museum

An important experience for us was a trip to geological museum. We were divided into groups of 15 people. There was a guide who explained us everything that was contained in the museum. We studied everything on the lessons of Physical Geology but it was just a theoretical part, so, the trip was a good chance to see all minerals in real life. There was a variety of all types of rocks such as igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks.

 

Sedimentology

Sedimentology encompasses the study of modern sediments such as sand, silt, and clay, and the processes that result in their formation (erosion and weathering),transport, deposition and diagenesis. Sedimentologists apply their understanding of modern processes to interpret geologic history through observations of sedimentary rocks and sedimentary structures.

Sedimentary rocks cover up to 75% of the Earth's surface, record much of the Earth's history, and harbor the fossil record. Sedimentology is closely linked to stratigraphy, the study of the physical and temporal relationships between rock layers or strata.

The premise that the processes affecting the earth today are the same as in the past is the basis for determining how sedimentary features in the rock record were formed. By comparing similar features today to features in the rock record—for example, by comparing modern sand dunes to dunes preserved in ancient aeolian sandstones—geologists reconstruct past environments.

There are four primary types of sedimentary rocks: clastics, carbonates, evaporites, and chemical.

· Clastic rocks are composed of particles derived from the weathering and erosion of precursor rocks and consist primarily of fragmental material. Clastic rocks are classified according to their predominant grain size and their composition. In the past, the term "Clastic Sedimentary Rocks" were used to describe silica-rich clastic sedimentary rocks, however there have been cases of clastic carbonate rocks. The more appropriate term is siliciclastic sedimentary rocks.

· Organic sedimentary rocks are important deposits formed from the accumulation of biological detritus, and form coal and oil shaledeposits, and are typically found within basins of clastic sedimentary rocks.

· Carbonates are composed of various carbonate minerals (most often calcium carbonate (CaCO₃)) precipitated by a variety of organic and inorganic processes. Typically, the majority of carbonate rocks are composed of reef material.

· Evaporites are formed through the evaporation of water at the Earth's surface and most commonly include halite or gypsum.

· Chemical sedimentary rocks, including some carbonates, are deposited by precipitation of minerals from aqueous solution. These include jaspilite and chert.

Wireline vs LWD

Wireline

– small, light and delicate

– since the 30s

– high data speeds

– easy communication

– good borehole contact

– powered through cable

– takes time

– after-the-fact

– specific coverage

– problem at high deviation

– susceptible to hole condition

LWD

– big, heavy and tough

– since the 70s

– slow telemetry

– limited control

– subject to drilling

– batteries and mud turbine

– transparent to drilling

– real-time

– azimuthal

– can log in any direction

– more capable in tough env.

 

Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology (" nanotech ") is manipulation of matter on an atomic, molecular, and supramolecular scale. The earliest, widespread description of nanotechnology referred to the particular technological goal of precisely manipulating atoms and molecules for fabrication of macroscale products, also now referred to as molecular nanotechnology. A more generalized description of nanotechnology was subsequently established by the National Nanotechnology Initiative, which defines nanotechnology as the manipulation of matter with at least one dimension sized from 1 to 100 nanometers. This definition reflects the fact that quantum mechanical effects are important at this quantum-realm scale, and so the definition shifted from a particular technological goal to a research category inclusive of all types of research and technologies that deal with the special properties of matter which occur below the given size threshold. It is therefore common to see the plural form "nanotechnologies" as well as "nanoscale technologies" to refer to the broad range of research and applications whose common trait is size. Because of the variety of potential applications (including industrial and military), governments have invested billions of dollars in nanotechnology research. Until 2012, through its National Nanotechnology Initiative, the USA has invested 3.7 billion dollars, the European Union has invested 1.2 billion and Japan 750 million dollars.

Nanotechnology as defined by size is naturally very broad, including fields of science as diverse as surface science, organic chemistry, molecular biology, semiconductor physics, microfabrication, etc. The associated research and applications are equally diverse, ranging from extensions of conventional device physics to completely new approaches based upon molecular self-assembly, from developing new materials with dimensions on the nanoscale to direct control of matter on the atomic scale.

Scientists currently debate the future implications of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology may be able to create many new materials and devices with a vast range of applications, such as in nanomedicine, nanoelectronics, biomaterials energy production, and consumer products. On the other hand, nanotechnology raises many of the same issues as any new technology, including concerns about the toxicity and environmental impact of nanomaterials, and their potential effects on global economics, as well as speculation about various doomsday scenarios. These concerns have led to a debate among advocacy groups and governments on whether special regulation of nanotechnology is warranted.

 

Intellectual game

The revision for our educational practice was an intellectual game. The game was divided into three sections. The first section contained 35 questions concerning all lectures that we have learned during our practice. They are related to sedimentology, petroleum geology, drilling, enhanced oil recovery, pressures and other themes. Also we had different tasks such as task for finding the layers of shale, gas water and other in other words a correlation which we studied on our Petroleum Geology lessons.

 

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is important to say that this academic practice were incredibly interesting. We had studied a lot of information on our Physical Geology and Petroleum Geology lessons, but we haven't such chance to see everything in real life. So, with this practice we had this opportunity. Because besides a theoretical information we must do our practice. I really enjoyed this time as there was very interesting especially trip to Geological museum and Charyn. All the data is easier to memorize by competing with people, we had a great competition in our intellectual game, so that it was easier for us to revise all information. It was an incredible experience for me.

References:

· http://www.nano.gov/nanotech-101/what/definition

· http://www.aapg.org/about/petroleum-geology/geology-and-petroleum/sedimentology-and-stratigraphy

· http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/bookseries/00704571

Ministry of Education and Science Republic of Kazakhstan