Appositive,predicative clauses.

Appositive,predicative clauses.

The choice of the form in these clauses is determined by the lexical meaning of the words these clauses follow or refer to.The order that we should come back surprised me. (appositive clause)The order was that we should arribe in time. (predicative clause)His suggestion that we talk about our future and was unexpected. (appositive clause)His suggestion was that we talk about our future. (predicative clause)

1. The forms should + infinitive or the present subjunctive are used after nouns expressing wish, advice, desire, proposal, doubt, hesitation, fear, apprehension, etc. After the last two nouns the conjunction lest is used. Their wish was that we should visit them tomorrow. (predicative clause) Your advice that he wait for some time is helpful. (appositive clause) Our fear lest we should take part in the discussion was righteous. (appositive clause) My fear was lest my best friend should tell all my secrets to my boyfriend. (predicative clause)

2. with the verbs to be, to seem, to look, to feel, to taste, to smell, etc. the past subjunctive or non-factual tense forms are used. In this case the clause has a comparative meaning and is introduced by as if, as though. If the action in the subordinate clause is simultaneous with the action in the principal clause the past subjunctive or non-factual past in­definite is used. If the action is prior to that in the principal clause, the non-factual past perfect is used. (She looked as if she were on cloud nine. She looked as if she had been on cloud nine. The room looked as if it hadn’t been lived in for ages. It seemed as though I were the happiest person on the planet. The house looked as if it were robbed. There is a tendency in informal style to use the indicative forms instead of the subjunctive ones, especially if one is confident of the exactitude of the comparison.(You look as if you go swimming everyday. You accuse David as though you have proofs in his theft.

 

5. The subjunctive mood in complex sentences with adverbial clauses of condition

 

Complex sentences may include conditional clauses expressing real condition(the indicative mood used) and unreal condition(subjunct.mood). Both conditions may refer to the past, present or future.

In sentences with real condition any form of the indicative may be used. (If he noticed her, he gave no sign. Why did you take a taxi, If you had no money? If I have hurt you, I am very sorry. You may ask everything if it you want. If I had been sure of Mike earlier, I wasn’t sure now.

 

Since the majority of conditional clauses are introduced by if they are often called if-clauses. Other conjunctions used to introduce conditional clauses are unless, in case, supposing (that), suppose (that), providing (that), provided (that), on condition (that). Thus unless has a negative meaning, although it is not identical with if not. Clauses introduced by unless indicate the only condition which may prevent the realization of the action in the main clause. Unless can be rendered in Russian by 'если только не'. Our telephone is blocked unless we pay for it till evening. If not – если не. Stay at home and prepare for the exem, if you don’t want to get a bad mark. In case – на тот случай, если. Remind granny to come in the evening, in case she forgets. The conjunctions suppose (that) and supposing (that) retain their original meaning of supposition. Suppose you can hear other people’s thoughts, whose thoughts will you hear first? The conjunctions provided (that) and providing (that) imply that the supposed condition is favourable or desirable. Providing that there are no questions, the lesson is over. These conjunctions may also introduce clauses of unreal condition.

In complex sentences containing an unreal condition the subjunctive mood is used in both the conditional clause and in the principal clause, because the action expressed in the principal clause depends on the unreal condition.

 

1. If the unreal actions in both the if-clause and the main clause refer to the present or future the non-factual past indefinite, or past continuous, or the past subjunctive is used in the subordinate clause and should/would + non-perfect common or continuous infinitive in the main clause. If you were more assertive, you would study at the academy now. You wouldn’t be talking that way unless you were in that situation. You shouldn’t act unless you thought.

2. If both actions refer to the past and contradict reality the non-factual past perfect or past perfect continuous is used in the if-clause and should/would + perfect or perfect continuous infinitive in the main clause. If he hadn’t come back from work so early, they wouldn’t have quarreled.

Clauses of unreal condition with the verb in the non-factual past perfect, past perfect continuous, past subjunctive (also should + infinitive and could + infinitive) may be introduced asyndetically(бессоюзно). In this case inversion serves as a means of subordination.Were you in my place, I would see what you would do. Were you not afraid, we would finish the trials.

 

Modal verbs can, will, may/ might, to be to in complex sentences of unreal condition.

The modal verbs can, will, may/might are freely used in the non-factual past indefinite to express unreality in conditional and principal clauses. Like the mood auxiliaries should, would they may be combined with different infinitives:

a) in main clauses: If I had time + I could go there / I would go there / I might go there / I should go there

b) in subordinate clauses: If I could translate this article / If he might translate this article / If I would translate this article (if I consented to do it) / If I translated this article

There may be a modal phrase in both clauses of the sentence, or in one clause only.

If you would be frank with me I might perhaps be of more help.

If she could have been compressed to about three quarters of her actual width, she would have been very attractive.

Anselmo grinned in the darkness. An hour ago he could not have imagined that he would ever smile again.

I would have kept on going, if I hadn’t had to leave Paris.

The Subjunctive mood in adverbial clauses of comparison and in predicative clauses.

Several forms of subjunctive are used in clauses of comparison depending on the time-reference.

1. If the action in the comparative clause is simultaneous with that in the main clause, the non-factual past indefinite or past subjunctive is used.

2. If the action in the comparative clause is prior to that in the main clause, the non-factual past perfect is used.

The usual conjunctions introducing comparative clauses are as if and as though.

His eyes wandered as if he were at a loss.

He paid no attention to us, as though we did not exist.

Miss Handforth was holding a tea-pot as if it were a hand grenade.

3. If the action in the subordinate clause is presented as following the action in the main clause would + infinitive is used.

He was whistling gaily as if his heart would break for joy.

In predicative clauses joined by the link verbs to be, to seem, to look, to feel, to taste, to smell, etc. the past subjunctive or non-factual tense forms are used. In this case the clause has a comparative meaning and is accordingly introduced by the comparative conjunctions as if, as though. If the action in the subordinate clause is simultaneous with the action in the principal clause the past subjunctive or non-factual past in­definite is used. If the action is prior to that in the principal clause, the non-factual past perfect is used.

He looked as if he were ill (his being ill is simultaneous with the time when his looks are commented upon).

He looked as if he had been ill (his being ill was prior to the time his looks are commented upon).

The house looked as if it had been deserted for years.

I felt as though I were talking to a child.

The Infinitive as simple nominal predicate. The Infinitive as part of a compound verbal modal and phasal predicates.

The Infinitive as object.

 

The infinitive can have the function of object after verbs, adjectives, adjectivized participles and statives.

After verbs the infinitive may be either the only object of a verb or one of two objects.

 

1. Verbs that take only one object are: to agree, to arrange, to attempt, to care (to like), to choose, to claim, to consent, to decide, to deserve, to determine, to expect, to fail, to fear, to forget, to hesitate, to hope, to intend, to learn, to like, to long, to love, to manage, to mean, to neglect, to omit, to plan, to prefer, to pretend, to refuse, to regret, to remember, to swear, to tend, etc.

 

She agreed to come at ten.

He planned to spend the day in town.

You’ll soon learn to read, sonny.

 

Among these verbs two groups can be distinguished:

 

a) the verbs to claim, to fail, to forget, to hate, to like, to omit, to regret, to remember, to swear, with which the perfect infinitive denotes actions prior to those of the finite verbs. It can be accounted for by the fact that semantically these verbs denote an action or state following or resulting from that of the infinitive (you can regret only what was or has been done).

 

I regret to have said it to her.

I remembered to have met him once.

She claims to have seen him before.

 

b) The verbs to attempt, to expect, to hope, to intend, to mean, to plan, to try, when followed by the perfect infinitive imply that the action of the infinitive was not fulfilled.

 

I hoped to have found him at home.

He intended to have reached the coast long before.

 

In this case the finite verb can be used only in the past tense.

 

Note:   As most of these verbs (item la) and b)) denote an attitude to the action expressed by the infinitive, the verb + infinitive may be treated syntactically as one whole. Thus the succes­sion of two verbs (... like to help...,... expect to arrive...,... plan to do...) allow of two modes of analysis, as a verb + its object or as a compound verbal predicate with the first element expressing attitude.

 

Besides the above-mentioned verbs there are also some rather common phrases used with the infinitive-object. They are the phrases can afford, can bear in the negative or interrogative and such phrases as to make sure, to make up one’s mind, to take care, to take the trouble.

 

Can you afford to buy it yourself?

I can’t bear to hear of it again.

At last he made up his mind to answer Sibyl’s letter.

 

2. Verbs that take two objects, the first of which is a noun or a pronoun and the second an infinitive. These are the verbs of inducement; they all have the general meaning to persuade, to cause to do something.

 

to advise to allow to ask to beg to cause to command to compel

to direct to encourage to forbid to force to have to impel to implore

to induce to instruct to invite to leave to let to make to order

to permit to persuade to recommend to request to require to tell to urge

 

Tell him to hurry.

He asked her to keep an eye on the clock.

What would you recommend me to do?

 

With all these verbs, except to have, to let and to make, a “to”- infinitive is used. After the verbs to have, to let and to make it loses the particle “to”.

 

She’ll have you do it at once.

Don’t let it bother you.

Soon she made me see where I was wrong.

 

The object, which is a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case, denotes a person (or, very seldom, a non-person) who is to perform the required action expressed by the infinitive.

 

The verb to help can be used either with one or with two objects:

 

She helped to pack.

She helped me to make up my mind.

 

In either case a “to”- infinitive or a bare infinitive can be used.

 

And she actually helped find it.

I’ ll help you do it.

 

With some verbs the function of object may be performed by a conjunctive infinitive phrase. These verbs are very few in number and fall into two groups:

 

a) Verbs that can take either an infinitive or a conjunctive infinitive phrase as their object. These are: to advise, to decide, to forget, to learn, to remember.

 

They advised me to go on. He decided to begin at once. I forgot to tell you about the last incident.

He advised me at last how to settle the matter. He could not decide whether to come at all. I forgot how to do it.

 

b) Verbs that can take only a conjunctive infinitive phrase as their object: to know, to show, to wonder.

 

She did not know what to say.

I know well enough where to stop.

Will you show me how to do it?

 

The infinitive can have the function of object after certain adjectives (adjectivized participles), mostly used as predicatives. Semantically and structurally these fall into two groups.

 

1. The most frequent adjectives of the first group are: anxious, apt, bound, careful, curious, determined, difficult, eager, easy, entitled, fit, free, hard, impatient, inclined, interested, keen, liable, powerless, prepared, quick, ready, reluctant, resolved, set, slow, worthy.

 

She’s determined to go on.

I am powerless to do anything.

He’s fully prepared to meet them any time they choose.

I was so impatient to start.

 

When used with these adjectives, the infinitive denotes actions either simultaneous with, or posterior to, the states expressed by the predicates, and cannot therefore be used in perfect forms.

 

2. The most frequent adjectives (adjectivized participles) of the second group are: amused, annoyed, astonished, delighted, distressed, frightened, furious, glad, grateful, happy, horrified, pleased, proud, puzzled, relieved, scared, sorry, surprised, thankful, touched.

 

He was amused to hear it.

I’m delighted to see you again, darling.

She is proud to have grown such a son.

Mother was furious to see them together again.

 

These adjectives and participles express certain psychological states which are the result of the action expressed by the infinitive object, so the latter therefore always denotes an action slightly preceding the state expressed by the predicate, and can have both non-perfect and perfect forms. The non-perfect forms are used to express immediate priority, that is, an action immediately preceding the state:

 

I’m glad to see you (I see you and that is why I am glad).

 

The perfect forms are used to show that there is a gap between the action and the resulting state.

 

I am glad to have seen you (I saw/have seen you and that is why I am glad).

 

3. After certain statives denoting psychological states, such as afraid, agog, ashamed:

He was ashamed to tell us this.

I’d be afraid to step inside a house that Rupert had designed all by himself.

 

In such cases the infinitive points out the source of the state expressed by the stative.

 

The Gerund as attribute.

The gerund is a non-finite form of the verb with some noun features; is formed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb. It modifies nouns (abstract); preceded by preposit of (There’s a chance of catching the train. I have an idea of going to the caffee. She has an intention of getting the 2^nd educ); preposit depends on requirements of modified noun (I surprised at seeing you. She has a skill in drawing); when it modifies concrete noun it’s preceded by for, it expresses purpose/ destination of thing mentioned (A car is a vehicle for driving. The thermometer is an instr for measuring the temperature); may precede noun it modifies (dancing master, reading lamp, working method, swimming pool)

The category of perfect

The category of perfect in participle I finds its expression in the contrast of the non-perfect and perfect forms. The non-perfect form suggests that the action denoted by participle I is simultaneous with that of the finite verb.

*Working as mechanic you know how many things work.

The perfect form of participle I indicates that the action denoted by the participle is prior to that denoted by the finite verb.

*Having done the homework you can do want you want.

Non-perfect participle I regularly expresses immediate priority and denotes an instantaneous action if it is formed from terminative verbs, such as verbs of motion (to come, to enter, to arrive, to turn, to leave), of sense perception (to see, to hear, to find) and verbs of certain specific actions associated with motion (to put, to put on, to take, to take off, to seize, to grasp, to open). * Arriving home, he found him alone. *Hearing a noise in outside, I looked out of the window.

The perfect participle of the same verbs is used when there is a lapse of time between the two actions, or when the action denoted by the participle is durative. *Seeing Jane, I rushed to shake hands. *Not having seen her for a long time, I didn’t recognize her.

Non-perfect participle I may denote a posterior action, immediately following the first action, forming its part or being its result, as in:

*Anna fell, hurting his hands.

The category of voice

Participle I of transitive verbs, both non-perfect and perfect, has voice distinctions, which are realized in the contrast of active and passive forms:

*Translating the novel from English into Russian, the author be witted.

Being translated the novel was appreciated among the students.

Participle I active denotes an action directed from the doer of the action, while participle I passive denotes an action directed towards it.

The doer of the action may be expressed by the nominal element of a predicative construction:

*I heard someone calling your by name.

* I heard your name being called by someone.

Non-perfect participle I active of transitive verbs can be contrasted not only with participle I passive, but also with participle II: taking -being taken -taken

Participle I as attribute

This function is peculiar to non-perfect participle I in its main sense, that of a process simultaneous with the action denoted by the main verb or with the moment of speech.

When a participial phrase is used as attribute it follows the modified noun. Its verbal character is evident from its verbal combinability and sometimes from the passive form itself. A participial phrase may be (a) non-detached or (b) detached:

a)Anna sat in the sofa facing the window.

b) Once a year John, arriving separately, came to visit us.

When a single participle is used as attribute, it generally functions as a premodifier. Here we usually find only participle I active of intransitive verbs. Its verbal character is clear from the processual meaning of the verb itself: living people, a sleeping dog.

Participle I as a premodifying attribute differs from the gerund in the same function. The noun serves as the subject of the action expressed by the participle, as in a living man = a man who lives, a burning house = a house that is burning, a dancing girl = a girl who is dancing (or dances). The gerund suggests the destination of the object or a person’s occupation, as in writing paper =paper for writing, dancing hall=a hall for dancing.

When a prior action is meant no participle I can be used as attribute, only an attributive clause is used. Thus when we translate sentences with the Russian perfective participle active with the suffix-вш into English we must use an attributive clause: спроси вш ий - who has asked, переводи вш ий (ранее) - who has translated or who has (had) been translating, уеха вш ий - who has gone, верну вш ийся - who has (had) returned or who returned, depending on the context or situation:

I’ve just talked to the students who have come back from their teaching practice.

I’ve talked to the students who came back from their school practice last week.

The woman who had been standing on the porch went into the house, (the action expressed by the participle is prior to that of the finite verb) But: I addressed the woman standing on the porch (simultaneous actions).

 

appositive,predicative clauses.

The choice of the form in these clauses is determined by the lexical meaning of the words these clauses follow or refer to.The order that we should come back surprised me. (appositive clause)The order was that we should arribe in time. (predicative clause)His suggestion that we talk about our future and was unexpected. (appositive clause)His suggestion was that we talk about our future. (predicative clause)

1. The forms should + infinitive or the present subjunctive are used after nouns expressing wish, advice, desire, proposal, doubt, hesitation, fear, apprehension, etc. After the last two nouns the conjunction lest is used. Their wish was that we should visit them tomorrow. (predicative clause) Your advice that he wait for some time is helpful. (appositive clause) Our fear lest we should take part in the discussion was righteous. (appositive clause) My fear was lest my best friend should tell all my secrets to my boyfriend. (predicative clause)

2. with the verbs to be, to seem, to look, to feel, to taste, to smell, etc. the past subjunctive or non-factual tense forms are used. In this case the clause has a comparative meaning and is introduced by as if, as though. If the action in the subordinate clause is simultaneous with the action in the principal clause the past subjunctive or non-factual past in­definite is used. If the action is prior to that in the principal clause, the non-factual past perfect is used. (She looked as if she were on cloud nine. She looked as if she had been on cloud nine. The room looked as if it hadn’t been lived in for ages. It seemed as though I were the happiest person on the planet. The house looked as if it were robbed. There is a tendency in informal style to use the indicative forms instead of the subjunctive ones, especially if one is confident of the exactitude of the comparison.(You look as if you go swimming everyday. You accuse David as though you have proofs in his theft.

 

5. The subjunctive mood in complex sentences with adverbial clauses of condition

 

Complex sentences may include conditional clauses expressing real condition(the indicative mood used) and unreal condition(subjunct.mood). Both conditions may refer to the past, present or future.

In sentences with real condition any form of the indicative may be used. (If he noticed her, he gave no sign. Why did you take a taxi, If you had no money? If I have hurt you, I am very sorry. You may ask everything if it you want. If I had been sure of Mike earlier, I wasn’t sure now.

 

Since the majority of conditional clauses are introduced by if they are often called if-clauses. Other conjunctions used to introduce conditional clauses are unless, in case, supposing (that), suppose (that), providing (that), provided (that), on condition (that). Thus unless has a negative meaning, although it is not identical with if not. Clauses introduced by unless indicate the only condition which may prevent the realization of the action in the main clause. Unless can be rendered in Russian by 'если только не'. Our telephone is blocked unless we pay for it till evening. If not – если не. Stay at home and prepare for the exem, if you don’t want to get a bad mark. In case – на тот случай, если. Remind granny to come in the evening, in case she forgets. The conjunctions suppose (that) and supposing (that) retain their original meaning of supposition. Suppose you can hear other people’s thoughts, whose thoughts will you hear first? The conjunctions provided (that) and providing (that) imply that the supposed condition is favourable or desirable. Providing that there are no questions, the lesson is over. These conjunctions may also introduce clauses of unreal condition.

In complex sentences containing an unreal condition the subjunctive mood is used in both the conditional clause and in the principal clause, because the action expressed in the principal clause depends on the unreal condition.

 

1. If the unreal actions in both the if-clause and the main clause refer to the present or future the non-factual past indefinite, or past continuous, or the past subjunctive is used in the subordinate clause and should/would + non-perfect common or continuous infinitive in the main clause. If you were more assertive, you would study at the academy now. You wouldn’t be talking that way unless you were in that situation. You shouldn’t act unless you thought.

2. If both actions refer to the past and contradict reality the non-factual past perfect or past perfect continuous is used in the if-clause and should/would + perfect or perfect continuous infinitive in the main clause. If he hadn’t come back from work so early, they wouldn’t have quarreled.

Clauses of unreal condition with the verb in the non-factual past perfect, past perfect continuous, past subjunctive (also should + infinitive and could + infinitive) may be introduced asyndetically(бессоюзно). In this case inversion serves as a means of subordination.Were you in my place, I would see what you would do. Were you not afraid, we would finish the trials.