Borrowings, substratum, superstatum.

The oldest borrowings from Celtic lang. were borrowings of law, social and military terms:

– Goth lekeis – лікар, цілитель

– OE lead – свинець

– OIsl. leđr – шкіра

The oldest borrowings from Latin took place in the I century A.D. These were:

– Military terms:

L campus> OE camp, OHG champf – поле.

– Roads, buildings

L milia> OE mil, OHG mila – миля, тисяча кроків.

– Food and drinks

L vinum> Germ. *wina> Goth wein, OHG win (>G Wein), OE win (>E wine) – вино.

– Plants and animals

L piper> OHG pfeffar (G. Pfeffer), OE pipor (>E pepper) – перець.

– Clothes and shoes

L saccus> OHG sac (>G. sack), OE sacca (>E sack) – мішок.

– Trade (торгівля)

L moneta> OHG monizza (>G. Münze), OE mynet (>E mint) – монета.

– Household goods

L discus> OHG tisks (>G. Tisch), E dish – диск, плоске блюдо.

Slavic borrowings:

ü Slav. * osenь> Germ. asani (час жнив)

ü Slav. *vorgь> Germ *warga (ворог)

ü Slav. pluь> Germ ploga (плуг)

The underlaid lang. is known as a substratum, the proposed explanation for sound change is therefore known as the substratum theory. Celtic lang. is a substratum for Engl. 449 year – Anglo-Saxons settled on the British Isles where the Celts were.

Superstratum – the superior influence in lang. It imposed on the other lang. (e. g. French). Bolgarian=Turkic+Slavic.

Simple and composite sentences.

Syntax of OGL isn’t fully explored. But it is considered that the structure of a simple sentence in OGL is the same as in the ModernGL. There were a couple of differences due to the morphological peculiarities of the Old L-ges.

Simple:

· The predicate was the obligatory feature of a sentence. The verb was absent only in a case when the same verb was used in the preceding sentence.

· The verb always took the 2^nd place. It took the 1^st place only if a sentence does not have a subject.

· Usually a sentence had both a subject and a predicate, but there were numerous cases of a sentence having only one or the other.

- sometimes the pronoun subject was eliminated;

- the subject wasn’t present if the predicate was presented as an impersonal verb, expressing natural phenomena or physical or emotional feeling (ringjan “to rain”, huggrjan “to be hungry”)

· The attribute and the object didn’t have a fixed position, could precede or follow the subject

· A simple sentence could be complicated by participle or infinitive constructions:

- absolute dative: Innagaggandin imam in Kafarnaum duatiddja imam hundafaps (до нього, що ввійшов у Капернаум, підійшов сотник)

- absolute accusative: Usgaggandan pan ina in daur, gasahw ina anpara (Його, що виходив з воріт, побачила інша)

- absolute nominative: Jah waurthans dags gatils, pan Herodis mela gabaurthais seinaizos nahtamat waurhta (І коли настав зручний день, тоді Ірод влаштував бенкет з нагоди свого дня народження)

Compound:

 

Comparative method.

Two languages are said to be genetically related if they are divergent continuations of the same earlier language. The common or hypothesised language that serves as a common ancestor is called a proto-language, or sometimes, a parent language. In this case the divergent continuations are frequently referred to as daughter languages. A parent language and its daughters constitute a language family.

Sometimes the proto-language is an actually attested language with surviving texts. A case in point is the family of Romance languages, including French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Rumanian, and others, whose common ancestor appears to be a variant of Latin. Yet English and German can be traced back only so far, and then we run out of texts. In such situations the job of a linguist is to come up with a reconstruction of the parent language, a hypothesis about the specific form of the proto-language that could have changed into the documented daughter languages.

In the classical procedure and the first prerequisite of reconstruction is that one have languages with a large number of words similar in sound and meaning. Such words are referred to as cognates, and the first thing to do is to set up lists of cognate words. Let us take, for example, the following words:

 

OE	OHG	ON	Goth.	ModE
fæder	fater	faðir	fadar	father
Þrīe	drî	þrír	þreis	three

 

First we look at the first sounds of each word in all the languages, and find out the first correspondence. Now we can determine the sound in the proto-language that could most easily resulted in the actually found sounds is *f-. Notice, that asterisk before the f implies reconstruction. This means that what follows is a reconstruction, and not an actually documented sound. A slightly more complex situation is presented by the words for ‘three’. Instead of unanimity, we find that Old High German has d, where other languages have þ, representing the sound found in Modern English bath. Other things being equal, in case like this, the linguist is inclined to let the majority rule. It is simpler to assume that one language made a change from þ to d than that three made a change from d to þ. Thus we reconstruct for Proto-Germanic the sound *þ.

The Indo-Europeans.

It is assumed that the Indo-European family of languages, with its numerous branches and its millions of speakers, has developed out of some single language, which must have been spoken thousands of years ago by some comparatively small body of people in a relatively restricted geographical area. This original language is called Proto-Indo-European (PIE). The people, who spoke it or who spoke languages evolved from it, are called Indo-Europeans. People of very different races and cultures can come to be native speakers of Indo-European languages: such speakers today include Indians, Afghans, Iranians, Greeks, Irishmen, Ukrainians, Mexicans, Brazilians, and Norwegians.

The traditional view has been that the Indo-Europeans were a nomadic or semi-nomadic people, who invaded neighboring agricultural or urban areas, and imposed their languages on them. It is believed that the initial expansion of the Indo-Europeans was simply the pushing out of the frontiers of an agricultural people, who over centuries introduced agriculture into the more thinly populated country round their periphery, inhabited by hunters or food-gatherers. This mass migration began in about 7000 BC or according to the traditional point of view it dates back to 4000BC or later.

The home of Indo-Europeans. There several opinions regarding where from the dispersal began. 1) Scandinavia, and the adjacent parts of Northern Germany, and it was often linked with a belief that the Germanic peoples were the ‘original’ Indo-Europeans; b) steppes of Ukraine, north of the Black sea; c) eastern Anatolia, to the South of the Caucasus range, and west of the Caspian sea.

Let us assume that it was the Ukrainian steppes or South Russian steppes, where about 5^th millennium BC, lived people, who formed a loosely linked group of communities with common gods and similar social organization. After 4000 BC, when the language had developed into a number of dialects, they began to expand in various directions, different groups ending up in Iran, India, the Mediterranean area, and most part of Europe. In the course of their expansion, the Indo-Europeans overran countries which had reached a higher level of civilization than they had themselves, the Aryas, for example, conquered the civilizations of Northern India, and the Persians those of Mesopotamia. Primitive nomadic peoples have overrun more advanced urban civilizations, and there is no need to postulate some special intellectual or physical prowess in the Indo-Europeans.

There is one technical factor, which played a role in the expansion of Indo-Europeans. This was the use of horse-drawn vehicles, which was characteristic of Indo-European society. The horse was a later introduction into the river valleys of the great early urban civilizations, in which the normal draught animal was the ass, and when the horse came to them, it came from the North. It is possible that Indo-Europeans were ahead of time, and it was their use of wheeled vehicles, especially the fast horse-drawn chariot, that enabled them to overrun such a large part of the Eurasian continent.

The family tree of the Indo-European languages.

PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN

 

Western branch Eastern branch

 

Western branch

West European

 

Сeltic-Italic

Celtic Italic Germanic Tocharian Hellenic Anatolian

Eastern branch

 

 

Baltic-Slavonic Arian

 

 

Baltic Slavonic Albanian Armenian Iranian Indian

 

 

The first division into an Eastern Group and a Western Group is important. The groups are marked by a number of differences in phonology, grammar, and vocabulary, which suggests that there was an early division of the Indo-Europeans into two main areas, perhaps representing migrations in different directions. One of the distinctive differences in phonology between the two groups is the treatment of the PIE palatal k, which appears as a velar [k] in the western languages, but as some kind of palatal fricative, [s] or [ ] in the Eastern languages. Thus the word for hundred is Greek he-katon, Latin centum, Tocharian känt, Old Irish cet, and Welsh cant (the c in each case representing [k]), but in Sanskrit it is satam, in Old Slavonic seto (modern Ukrainian cто). For this reason, the two groups are often referred to as the Kentum languages and the Satem languages. On the whole, the Kentum languages are in the West and the Satem languages in the East, but an apparent anomaly is Tocharian, right across in western China, which is a Kentum language. The division into Kentum and Satem languages took place around 1500 BC.

Tree of IE lang.

PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN

 

 

Western branch Eastern branch

 

 

Western branch

West European

 

Сeltic-Italic

Celtic Italic Germanic Tocharian Hellenic Anatolian

 

Eastern branch

 

 

Baltic-Slavonic Arian

 

 

Baltic Slavonic Albanian Armenian Iranian Indian

 

 

The first division into an Eastern Group and a Western Group is important. The groups are marked by a number of differences in phonology, grammar, and vocabulary, which suggests that there was an early division of the Indo-Europeans into two main areas, perhaps representing migrations in different directions. One of the distinctive differences in phonology between the two groups is the treatment of the PIE palatal k, which appears as a velar [k] in the western languages, but as some kind of palatal fricative, [s] or [ ] in the Eastern languages. Thus the word for hundred is Greek he-katon, Latin centum, Tocharian känt, Old Irish cet, and Welsh cant (the c in each case representing [k]), but in Sanskrit it is satam, in Old Slavonic seto (modern Ukrainian cто). For this reason, the two groups are often referred to as the Kentum languages and the Satem languages. On the whole, the Kentum languages are in the West and the Satem languages in the East, but an apparent anomaly is Tocharian, right across in western China, which is a Kentum language. The division into Kentum and Satem languages took place around 1500 BC.

 

 

ü A parent language – a language from which a later language is derived: Latin is the parent language of Italian and French.

ü A daughter language. In historical linguistics, a daughter language is a language descended from another language through a process of genetic descent. Examples:

* English is a daughter language of Proto-Germanic, which is a daughter language of Proto-Indo-European.

* Italian is a daughter language of (Vulgar) Latin, which is a daughter language of Proto-Indo-European.

* Hindi is a daughter language of Sanskrit (/Prakrit), which is a daughter language of Proto-Indo-European. * Arabic is a daughter language of Proto-Semitic, which is a daughter language of Proto-Afro-Asiatic.

ü Dialect – a form of a language spoken in a particular geographical area or by members of a particular social class or occupational group, distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation b) a form of a language that is considered inferior.

ü Genetically related languages – are the divergent continuation of the same earlier language.

In linguistics, genetic relationship is the usual term for the relationship which exists between languages that are members of the same language family.

Two languages are considered to be genetically related if one is descended from the other or if both are descended from a common ancestor. For example, Italian is descended from Latin. Italian and Latin are therefore said to be genetically related. Spanish is also descended from Latin. Therefore, Spanish and Italian are genetically related. Metaphorically, we can refer to the relation defined by a parent-child pattern of language transmission as genetic relationship of languages. The source language can be called the "ancestor language" or the "mother language", and the later languages deriving from it are called the "descendant languages" or the "daughter languages". Daughter languages are descended from the mother language. They are genetically related.

Genetically related languages have a common parent language: proto-language

􀂃 systematic comparison shows if languages are descended from common parent

􀂃 changes not only observed in documented history but also in language prehistory.

ü Closely related lang-es – are genetically related lang-es possessing a lot of features in common, such as English and Frisian or Danish and Swedish.

The home of Indo-Europeans.

There several opinions regarding where from the dispersal began. 1) Scandinavia, and the adjacent parts of Northern Germany, and it was often linked with a belief that the Germanic peoples were the ‘original’ Indo-Europeans; b) steppes of Ukraine, north of the Black sea; c) eastern Anatolia, to the South of the Caucasus range, and west of the Caspian sea.

Let us assume that it was the Ukrainian steppes or South Russian steppes, where about 5^th millennium BC, lived people, who formed a loosely linked group of communities with common gods and similar social organization. After 4000 BC, when the language had developed into a number of dialects, they began to expand in various directions, different groups ending up in Iran, India, the Mediterranean area, and most part of Europe. In the course of their expansion, the Indo-Europeans overran countries which had reached a higher level of civilization than they had themselves, the Aryas, for example, conquered the civilizations of Northern India, and the Persians those of Mesopotamia. Primitive nomadic peoples have overrun more advanced urban civilizations, and there is no need to postulate some special intellectual or physical prowess in the Indo-Europeans.

There is one technical factor, which played a role in the expansion of Indo-Europeans. This was the use of horse-drawn vehicles, which was characteristic of Indo-European society. The horse was a later introduction into the river valleys of the great early urban civilizations, in which the normal draught animal was the ass, and when the horse came to them, it came from the North. It is possible that Indo-Europeans were ahead of time, and it was their use of wheeled vehicles, especially the fast horse-drawn chariot, that enabled them to overrun such a large part of the Eurasian continent.

Kentum and Satem lang-es.

The first division into an Eastern Group and a Western Group is important. The groups are marked by a number of differences in phonology, grammar, and vocabulary, which suggests that there was an early division of the Indo-Europeans into two main areas, perhaps representing migrations in different directions. One of the distinctive differences in phonology between the two groups is the treatment of the PIE palatal k, which appears as a velar [k] in the western languages, but as some kind of palatal fricative, [s] or [ ] in the Eastern languages. Thus the word for hundred is Greek he-katon, Latin centum, Tocharian känt, Old Irish cet, and Welsh cant (the c in each case representing [k]), but in Sanskrit it is satam, in Old Slavonic seto (modern Ukrainian cто). For this reason, the two groups are often referred to as the Kentum languages and the Satem languages. On the whole, the Kentum languages are in the West and the Satem languages in the East, but an apparent anomaly is Tocharian, right across in western China, which is a Kentum language. The division into Kentum and Satem languages took place around 1500 BC.

PG: concept, division.

The branch of Indo-European that English belongs to is called Germanic. Germanic languages are descended from one parent language, a dialect of Indo-European, called Proto-Germanic (PG). Round about the beginning of the Christian era, the speakers of Proto-Germanic still formed a relatively homogeneous cultural and linguistic group, living in the north of Europe. There are no records of the language of this period, but we know something about the people who spoke it, because they were described by Roman authors, who called them the Germani, which for convenience are translated as ‘Germans’. One of the best-known of these descriptions is that written by Tacitus in AD 98, called Germania.

The branches of Germanic

As a result of this expansion of the Germanic-speaking peoples, differences of dialect within Proto-Germanic became more marked, and we can distinguish three main branches or groups of dialects, namely North Germanic, East Germanic, and West Germanic.

Proto-Germanic

 

 

West Germanic North Germanic East Germanic

 

To North Germanic belong the modern Scandinavian languages – Norwegian, Swedish, Danish, Icelandic, Faroese and Gutnish (the language of the island of Gotland). The earliest recorded form of North Germanic (Old Norse) is found in runic inscriptions from about AD 300; and it is not until the Viking Age, from about AD 800 onwards, that it begins to break up into the dialects, which have developed into the modern Scandinavian languages. Here is the family tree for the North Germanic languages:

 

North Germanic (Old Norse)

West Scandinavian East Scandinavian

Icelandic Norwegian Faroese Danish Swedish Gutnish

 

 

The East Germanic dialects were spoken by the tribes that expanded East of the Oder around the shores of the Baltic. They included the Goths, and Gothic is the only East Germanic language of which we have any record. Round AD 200 the Goths migrated south-eastwards, and settled in the plains north of the Black Sea, where they divided into two branches, the Ostgoths east of the Dieper and the Visigoths west of it. The main record of Gothic is the fragmentary remains of a translation of the Bible into Visigothic, made by the Bishop Wulfila or Ulfilas in the middle of the forth century. The Goths were later overrun by the Huns, but a form of Gothic was being spoken in the Crimea as late as the 17^th century. It has since died out, however, and no East Germanic language has survived into our own times. Here is the family tree for the East Germanic languages:

 

East Germanic

 

Burgundian Vandal Gothic

Visigothic Ostrogothic

 

To West Germanic belong the High German dialects of southern Germany, the Low German dialects of northern Germany (which in their earliest recorded form are called Old Saxon), Dutch, Frisian, and English. The language most closely related to English is Frisian, which was once spoken along the coast of North sea, from Northern Holland to central Denmark, but which is now heard only in a few coastal regions and on some of the Dutch islands. Before the migration of the Anglo-Saxons to England, they must have been near neighbours of the Frisians. Here is a family tree for the West Germanic languages:

 

 

West Germanic

 

Old High Old Saxon Old Low Franconian

German

 

High Low German Dutch Old English Old Frisian

German English Frisian

Old North Germ. lang-es.

Old Germ. lang-es (400 A.D./ 900 A.D.)

It took approximately 5 centuries for the Old Germ. lang-es (dialects) to form the features of individuality to be definitely distinguished from one another, with the East Germ. lang-es having died away by the time the North Germ. lang-es manifested features of differentiation.

West Germ.			East Germ.			North Germ.
OE	5^th c		Old Norwegian	8^th c		Gothic	3d-4^th c
Old Frisian	5^th c		Old Faroese	9^th c
Old Low Franconian	7^th c		Old Icelandic	9^th c
OHG	8^th c		Old Swedish	8^th c
Old Saxon	9^th c		Old Danish	9^th c

The development of the Germ. group was not confined to successive splits. It involved both linguistic divergence and convergence.

As a result of the expansion of the Germanic-speaking peoples, differences of dialect within Proto-Germanic became more marked, and we can distinguish three main branches or groups of dialects, namely North Germanic, East Germanic, and West Germanic.

Proto-Germanic

 

 

West Germanic North Germanic East Germanic

To North Germanic belong the modern Scandinavian languages – Norwegian, Swedish, Danish, Icelandic, Faroese and Gutnish (the language of the island of Gotland). The earliest recorded form of North Germanic (Old Norse) is found in runic inscriptions from about AD 300; and it is not until the Viking Age, from about AD 800 onwards, that it begins to break up into the dialects, which have developed into the modern Scandinavian languages. Here is the family tree for the North Germanic languages:

 

North Germanic (Old Norse)

West Scandinavian East Scandinavian

Icelandic Norwegian Faroese Danish Swedish Gutnish

Old North Germ. lang-es anf their written records (Hilleviones):

1) Old Norse or Old Scandinavian (2^nd – 3^rd c A.D.) – Futhark, runic inscriptions

2) Old Icelandic (12^th c A.D.)

3) Old Norwegian (13^th c A.D.)

4) Old Danish (13^th c A.D.)

5) Old Swedish (13^th c A.D.)

Old West Germ. lang-es.

Old Germ. lang-es (400 A.D./ 900 A.D.)

It took approximately 5 centuries for the Old Germ. lang-es (dialects) to form the features of individuality to be definitely distinguished from one another, with the East Germ. lang-es having died away by the time the North Germ. lang-es manifested features of differentiation.

West Germ.			East Germ.			North Germ.
OE	5^th c		Old Norwegian	8^th c		Gothic	3d-4^th c
Old Frisian	5^th c		Old Faroese	9^th c
Old Low Franconian	7^th c		Old Icelandic	9^th c
OHG	8^th c		Old Swedish	8^th c
Old Saxon	9^th c		Old Danish	9^th c

The development of the Germ. group was not confined to successive splits. It involved both linguistic divergence and convergence.

As a result of the expansion of the Germanic-speaking peoples, differences of dialect within Proto-Germanic became more marked, and we can distinguish three main branches or groups of dialects, namely North Germanic, East Germanic, and West Germanic.

Proto-Germanic

 

 

West Germanic North Germanic East Germanic

 

To West Germanic belong the High German dialects of southern Germany, the Low German dialects of northern Germany (which in their earliest recorded form are called Old Saxon), Dutch, Frisian, and English. The language most closely related to English is Frisian, which was once spoken along the coast of North sea, from Northern Holland to central Denmark, but which is now heard only in a few coastal regions and on some of the Dutch islands. Before the migration of the Anglo-Saxons to England, they must have been near neighbours of the Frisians. Here is a family tree for the West Germanic languages:

West Germanic

 

Old High Old Saxon Old Low Franconian

German

 

High Low German Dutch Old English Old Frisian

German

English Frisian

West Germ. lang-es and their written records:

1) Anglian

2) Frisian

3) Langobardian

4) Jutish

5) Saxon

6) Franconian

7) High German

v Alemanic

v Thüringian

v Swabian

v Bawarian

8) OE (7^th c A.D.)

9) Old Saxon (9^th c A.D.)

10) OHG (8^th c A.D.)

11) Old Dutch (12^th c A.D.)