Victoria's International Policy

After the loss of the American colonies in 1783, nobody could imag­ine that the idea of enlarging the British Empire could be popular at the end of the 19^th century. However, Queen Victoria and her government managed to persuade the British nation that acquiring new colonies was an important political and economical step. On the other hand, it was a matter of competition between the European countries.

Britain was afraid of Russia's influence in Asia. This fear led to a disastrous war in Afghanistan in 1839-1842. Then Britain fought wars in Pakistan and India.

When Russia came to war against Ottoman Turkey in 1854, Britain joined the Turks, because it feared that Russia would win and change the balance of power in Europe.

British interest in Africa led to a division of African lands into areas of interest between great European countries. The government ex­plained their interest in Africa by bringing Christianity to the "uncivi­lized" African peoples.

The British expansion to the south of Africa resulted in the war with the Dutch settlers, called the Boers. It was not easy for the British to win this war. They had done it with great difficulty. This war showed all the weaknesses of the British army.

In 1882 Britain invaded Egypt, explaining it by the wish to protect international trade in the Suez Canal. The British were forced to leave Egypt only in 1954.

In 1884 Britain invaded the Sudan.

One of the reasons of the British expansion was the growth of Brit­ain's population. People began to immigrate to Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Unfortunately, the earlier inhabitants of these countries were either pushed to the worst territories or killed.

To the end of the 19^th century the British government began to re­alize that their colonies might follow the American example and be­come independent. Numerous rebellions in Canada, India and other col­onies proved this idea. So, Britain announced self-government of its col­onies, one by one, and at last for all of them. It was the beginning of the British "Commonwealth of Nations".

 

The Domestic Policy

Owing to its industrial growth Britain of the 19^th century was the most powerful country in the world. It produced more iron than the rest of the world together. It had enough coal and steel for its own needs and could also export it to Europe. British factories produced iron ships, steam engines and different machinery in large quantities. Britain was also a leading producer of woollen and cotton cloth, which was exported to India and other colonies, destroying their local cloth-making industries.

Britain's industry was supported by a strong banking system which developed in the 18^th—19^th centuries.

The conditions of the poor in Britain became better to the end of the 19lh century. Wages became twice larger and prices fell by 40 per­cent. The house conveniences like gas for heating and lighting were avail­able almost in all homes.

The development of the railway brought convenience in the sys­tem of transportation. People preferred to go by train rather than by canals, because it was much faster. Many people went to live in the sub­urbs, because they could easily get to work by train from the suburb, house to their working place in the city.

The cities and towns became less overcrowded and cleaner. At the beginning of the 19^th century one baby in four died within a year of its birth in cities. The cities were an unhealthy place to live in. In 1832 an outbreak of cholera killed about 31.000 people.

In the middle of the century the British government began to take measures to supply cities and towns with the proper system of drains and clean water. As the result the life in cities and towns became much better.

All children up to the age of 13 had to go to schools, and study read­ing, writing and arithmetic. There appeared a lot of public schools, usu­ally for boys, which provided good education for a certain payment. There appeared new types of colleges, called "redbrick" colleges, which mostly prepared workers for Britain's industry.

 

DO YOU KNOW THAT...

... in 1857 there was a revolt in India, called "Indian Mutiny". It oc­curred as the result of bad treatment of Indian Soldiers by the British ones. This revolt had nearly become a national movement. Since then the friendly relations between the British and Indians never renewed.

... Queen Victoria wrote the book "Our life in the Highlands" in 1868. The book was Victoria's diary. The British people could read about their queen's private life, which seemed like the life of an ordinary English­man. She called her husband simply as "Albert", her son "Bertie", her daughter "Vicky". Victoria's popularity increased greatly after the ap­pearance of this book.

... in 1851 Queen Victoria on the advice of her husband opened the Great Exhibition of the industries in the Crystal Palace in London. Its aim was to show the world that the British Empire was the greatest power in the world. The aim was achieved.

 

FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES:

I. Match the words and their definitions.

1. grief	a) a sudden appearance or beginning of something bad;
2. virtuous	b) an outer area of a town or city, where people live;
3. disastrous	c) an infectious disease caused by bacteria which attacks esp. the stomach and bowels causing severe diarrhoea, sickness, etc., and often leads to death;
4. outbreak	d) very bad; being or causing a sudden serious misfortune, suffering and damage;
5. cholera	e) having or showing goodness, nobleness, and worth of character as shown in right behaviour;
6. drain	f) great sorrow or feeling of suffering, esp. at the death of a loved person;
7. suburbs	g) a means of carrying out waste water away, such as a ditch or underground pipe.

Guess the translation of these words.

 

II. Answer the questions.

1. What do you know about Queen Victoria's family?

2. When and why did Victoria refuse to be seen in public?

3. Was Victoria a popular monarch?

4. How long did Victoria rule over the British Empire?

5. What were the reasons of the British expansion in the 19^th century?

6. What kind of relations were between Britain and Russia in the 19^th century?

7. What was the economical situation of the British Empire under Queen Victoria?

8. How did the life in cities and towns change to the end of the century?

9. What other social improvements took place in the 19^th century?

 

III. Agree or disagree with the following statements:

1. Britain had not enough coal, iron and steel, and could not export them in large

quantities to Europe.

2. The railway was soon empty as everything went by canals.

3. The middle classes took advantage of the opportunity to live in towns and cities

4. The cities and towns were overcrowded and unhealthy.

5. Victoria was not happy in her family life.

6. Victoria had nine children.

7. Victoria ruled for 60 years.

8. Britain won the war in Afghanistan in 1839-1842.

9. Britain was a leading producer of woollen and cotton cloth.

10. Victoria wrote the book "Our life in the Lowlands".

 

IV. Discuss in groups.

Is it right to let the public know much about the private life of their monarch?

 

V. Make up puzzles and let your classmates solve them.

Example: Which British monarch has the same name as the waterfall in Africa? —

Queen Victoria.

 

VII. Test yourself.

1. The strength of Britain of the 19th century lay in a) a larger population b) colonies c) industry and trade.   2. In the 19^th century Britain feared a) France b) Russia c) Africa.   3. In 1851 Queen Victoria a) opened the Great Exhibition b) died c) was born.   4. The most convenient transport in the 1904 century in Britain became a) ships going by canal b) railway c) planes.   5. The middle classes preferred to live in a) big cities b) small towns c) the suburbs of cities.

6. Queen Victoria's husband was a) a German b) a French c) an Englishman.   7. In the Crimean War the British fought against a) Turkey b) Russia c) Afghanistan.   8. British policy in Africa was a) to introduce Christianity b) to help the African people c)to build a commercial and political empire. 9. Arthur Cadbury was the owner of a) a chocolate factory b) an iron producing plant c) railways.   10. Charles Darwin wrote the book a) "Enquiry into the wealth of nations" b) "In darkest England and the way out" c) "The origin of species".

 

VIII. Prepare a report about Queen Victoria.

 

VII. THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Queen Victoria was succeeded by her eldest son Edward. He be­came King Edward VII of Great Britain and Ireland, as well as Emperor of India in 1901 and ruled up to 1910. His second son George became King George V on his father's death. George made his military career in t he Royal Navy. In 1903 he was created an admiral. During World War I everything German was unpopular, so George V changed the name of t he royal house of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to Windsor. The after-war peri­od was a challenge for the king and for the country, but George did his best. His rule ended in 1936.

 

The First World War

WWI did not break out unexpectedly. At the beginning of the 20^th century Britain began to realize that it was no longer as powerful as it had been before. It was still great, but the USA, Germany and France were constantly competing with it. Britain turned out to have less con­trol over the seas and it had less powerful army and industry than the USA and Germany. Britain feared Germany. Because of that fear it made treaties of friendship with France, Japan and even Russia. Be­sides, Britain began to build battleships, so that it could resist Germany at sea in case of war.

By 1914 Germany had made an alliance with Austria-Hungary. Russia and France had made one too. In July 1914 Austria-Hungary declared war on its neighbour Serbia. It was caused by the murder of the senior Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, a city in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Thus Russia and Germany got involved into the conflict as Russia had promised to defend Serbia and Germany had promised to stand by Austria-Hungary. France, Russia's ally, got ready to withstand German aggression. Britain hoped to slay neutral, but German troops occupied Belgium on their way to France. Britain had promised Belgium to keep its neutrality according to the treaty of 1838.

It was not the only reason why Britain got dragged into the war. Maybe the main one was that Britain feared Germany's increasing power and its desire to change the map of Europe.

The British entered the war with enthusiasm. At the beginning it was a popular war, and men joined the army willingly. Then during the first few weeks of war Germany nearly defeated the Allies. German soldiers were better trained and better equipped. Their weapons were modern and more powerful. Artillery, machine guns and submarines had destructive power. The tank began to be used on the battlefield, but the Allies did not understand its value at the proper time

To the end of the war many men, especially Quakers, refused to fight. The British government had to persuade the people that the war was worth fighting, because they were defending other weak countries from Germany, and they were fighting for freedom and democracy.

In 1917 Russia made peace with Germany. The latter hoped for vic­tory over the Allies, but their submarines used to sink neutral traders ships which drew the USA into the war. In November 1918 Germany had to surrender.

Britain had lost over 750.000 men by that time. About 2.000.000 people were seriously injured. An influenza epidemic in 1918-1919 killed about 150.000 people more. In the Middle East, in Turkey, Iraq and Palestine, where Britain had been fighting against German allies, many casualties were caused by sickness and heat

The peace conference was held in Versailles. German representatives were not invited to the conference, and Germany was forced «accept a severe punishment. All German and Turkish colonial territo­ries were taken by the Allies. The British Empire added Tanganyika, South-West Africa, New Guinea, and Samoa to its possessions. 3ritair1 got mandates over Palestine, Iraq and Transjordan. In 1917 Britain stat­ed that Palestine should be a home for the Jewish peoples, so Jews from all over the world began to settle down in Palestine. This process aroused great indignation on the Palestinian side which resulted in disastrous consequences. The national collision shows itself in constant hostility ant fighting.

Britain was weakened by WWI. There was a great waste of materi­al resources. So after the end of the war the British government started a programme of rebuilding homes and improving health service and education system of the country.

 

Ireland

The problem of Ireland had not been solved by the end of the 19й1 century. The country's population was divided Into Catholics, mostly in the south, and Protestants, in the northern part of Ireland. The Catho­lics demanded Home Rule, but the Protestants wanted to be part of the UK. Catholics and Protestants in Ulster, the name of the northern part of Ireland, chose violence as the method of solving the problem. In 1916 at Easter time a number of republican Irishmen rebelled in Dublin. They demanded independence. Though they were not supported by all Irish people, this event had serious consequences. The British government put down the rebellion quickly and executed its leaders. People were shocked. In 1918 Irish republicans formed their own parliament in Dub­lin, called Dail. The Dail announced Ireland to be a republic. In 1921 the British government decided to make peace with Ireland after a long guerrilla war. The treaty stated that southern Ireland was independ­ent, but Ulster had to stay in the UK. Besides, the British Crown was considered the sovereign on all the territory of Ireland.

Still the republicans were not satisfied. They formed a new party, Fianna Fail, which won the elections in 1932. In 1937 its new Prime Min­ister Eamon de Valera declared southern Ireland to be an independent republic free from the British Crown.

Nowadays the UK and the Republic of Ireland are different states, though their citizens are not considered foreigners in one another's coun­try. But still many Irish republicans think that Ireland should be united. They still use violent methods and we can hear about terrorism in Ul­ster in the news from time to time. It means that the Irish problem has not been solved yet.

 

FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES

I. Match the words and their definitions.

1. archduke	a) large guns, esp. on wheels or fixed in one place, e.g. on a ship or in a fort;
2. to stand by	b) a member of a Christian religious group which is known for its opposition to violence and war;
3. to withstand	c) a royal prince, esp. of the royal family of Aus­tria in former times;
4. to drag in(to)	d) to oppose successfully;
5. artillery	e) the power given to a country by the League of Nations after the First World War to govern (part of) another country;
6. machine gun	f) a quick-firing gun, often supported on legs, which fires continuously as long as the trigger is pressed;
7. Quaker	g) to remain loyal to, esp. in a difficult situation;
8. to surrender	h) to give up or give in to the power (esp. of an enemy), as a sign of defeat;
9. mandate	i) to introduce (something or someone unconnect­ed with the main subject).

Guess the translation of these words.

 

II. Answer the questions.

1. What monarchs ruled over Britain from 1901 till 1936?

2. Why did George V change the name of the royal family to Windsor?

3. What was the background of WWI?

4. What countries represented the two hostile sides in WWI?

5. What event served as the pretext of the war?

6. How did the British government explain to the nation the necessity of Britain to

participate in the war?

7. What was the character of the war?

8. How was the USA dragged into the war?

9. What was the role of Russia in the war?

10. What were the casualties in the British army?

11. Where was the peace conference held?

12. How was Germany punished?

13. What are the roots of the Palestinian and Jewish conflict?

14. How did the Republic of Ireland appear?

 

 

III. Make up word combinations.

1. machine 2. destructive 3. modern 4. weak 5. neutral 6. peace 7. material 8. health 9. serious 10. home

a) weapons b) rule c) power d) guns e) consequences f) countries g) conference h) service i) resources j) traders

 

IV. True-false quiz.

1. Britain had better trained soldiers than Germany.

2. The war on land was more important for Britain than the war at sea.

3. Quakers refused to join the army.

4. Russia made peace with Germany in 1917.

5. Germany's ally v/as Belgium.

6. Franz Ferdinand was murdered in Paris.

7. Germany surrendered in 1920.

8. Ulster is the name of the southern part of Ireland.

9. Southern Ireland became independent in 1937.

10. George V was grandson of Queen Victoria.

 

V. What do you know about the First World War from your History lessons?

Tell the class about it.

 

The Second World War

After WWI the Allies created the League of Nations. This organi­zation was a prototype of the later United Nations Organization. Though the League did not reject war it was supposed to respect the borders and territories of its other members. The countries of the League were hoped to cooperate with each other. Unfortunately, the League of Na­tions was not able to prevent the impending war.

Adolf Hitler began to rearm Germany after WWI. He founded the Nazi Party. He began to spread his ideas about the supremacy of Ger­man people over the whole world.

Adolf Hitler was not the only dictator with such ideas. General Fran­cisco Franco kept control of Spain by force, Benito Mussolini, an Italian Fascist dictator, invaded Abyssinia (Ethiopia), without paying atten­tion to the protest and indignation expressed by most European counties. In the Far East Japanese army occupied Korea and China. In March 1938 Hitler annexed Austria. Britain, with its Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, reluctantly agreed to this union. Then Hitler demanded the right to occupy the southern part of Czechoslovakia, where the majority of population spoke German. Chamberlain had three meet­ings with Hitler over Czechoslovakia: on September 15, 22, 23 and 30, 1938. At the first meeting Chamberlain agreed to annexation, at the second one he rejected Hitler's proposal, and at the third he conceded. Chamberlain was blamed for being weak and unable to remain firm in his decisions. When Chamberlain returned from Munich, he was sure that Germany, having taken southern Czechoslovakia, had no more ter­ritorial claims. But he was mistaken. Six months later Hitler occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia. In March 1939 Britain decided to give guar­antees to Poland that it would help this country if it was attacked by Germany. Later Romania and Greece received the same guarantees. On August 23, 1939 Germany made a treaty of non-aggression. On Sep­tember 1, 1939 Germany invaded Poland. So, Britain together with France entered the war.

Not many people realized how strong the German army was. In May 1940 Norway was taken; then came the turn of Belgium and Holland. France was defeated in June in a few weeks.

The British army had to be quickly evacuated from France. Famous is the battle at Dunkirk, a small French port. There the British army was saved by thousands of private boats which crossed the English Channel. The new Prime Minister Winston Churchill called it "a victory of courage", but actually it was a miraculous rescue.

In WWII airforce acquired an important meaning. German fight­ers bombed British towns causing great damage. But the German air- force could not gain air superiority over the British one. When Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany, the British government began to improve and enlarge its Royal Air Force (RAF). The main type of air- force was bombers rather than fighters, because it was realized that bombers were more effective in both offensive and defensive actions. The radar installations and British anti-aircraft defense system were effective, too.

Germany and Japan had made two serious mistakes in 1941. Ger­many attacked the Soviet Union, and Japan attacked the United States. The United States entered the war after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in the Pacific Ocean in 1941.

The Soviet Union suffered great losses. Moscow asked its Allies for help. It was decided to open the second front in Europe. But the USA and Great Britain did not hurry to fulfil this task. Germany, though weakened by the Soviet Union, still had large forces in Europe, and the Allies were afraid of losing their soldiers and being defeated. So they did not open the second front in 1942, neither did they open it in 1943. Instead British and American armies fought in Northern Africa (an op­eration called "Torch") where a large group of Italian and German troops was stationed.

In 1943 Moscow received Churchill's message, which said that Brit­ain stopped providing Soviet northern ports with military provision. It happened right at the moment when the Soviet Union needed the Al­lies' help most of all. Germany used the situation of the Allies being pas­sive and attacked the Soviet Union from the south. The enemy was moving to the Caucasus and to Stalingrad wishing to strike a mortal blow. The Battle of Stalingrad was continuing for 200 days and nights and the Soviet army managed to break the German line. The total number of casualties in this battle was 1.5 mln people.

The USA and Great Britain began to realize that the Soviet Union might win the war and as the winner it would have all the rights to control the after-war situation in the world. The policy of holding back the opening of the second front was no more necessary.

Only in December 1943 at the Teheran Conference Churchill, Roo­sevelt and Stalin agreed about the date of opening the second front. This operation was called "Overlord", and it began only in spring 1944.

By that time Italy had surrendered (in July 1943). The war ended on May 8, 1945. Japan surrendered on August 14, after America had brought atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki Over 110.000 peo­ple died immediately and many thousands more died later from the after-effects.

By 1945 about 303,000 British men and women in the armed serv­ices, and about 60.000 civilians had been killed. The country was devas­tated by German airforce bombardment, known as the Blitz.

The end of the war was a great relief for the British people. British economy was damaged, and the country had become economically de­pendent on the USA. Nevertheless, Britain recovered quickly.

The end of the war marked one more change in the mind of the European community. Colonialism was no more popular. The end of the British Empire was approaching. Iraq became independent in 1945. In 1947 Britain left India. It also left Palestine, where it could not settle the problem of Arabs and Jews. Ceylon became independent the following year. Many other colonies were set free. Most of them were invited to join the Commonwealth as independent states.

 

FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES

I. Match the words and their definitions.

1. to annex	a) to admit as true, correct, or proper, often unwillingly;
2. to concede	b) of or for attacking;
3. impending	c) an apparatus in a fixed state ready for use;
4. offensive	d) to take control and possession of (land, a small country, etc.), esp. by force;
5. defensive	e) (usu. of something unpleasant) about to happen;
6. installation	f) an effect (usu. unpleasant) that follows some time after the cause or after the main effect;
7. after-effect	g) used or intended for protection against attack.

Guess the translation of these words.

 

 

II. Answer the questions.

1. What was the purpose of the League of Nations?

2. What countries were the main Allies of Adolf Hitler?

3. How did Hitler enlarge his territorial possessions before WWII?

4. What was Chamberlain's policy in relation to Germany?

5. How did Britain enter the war?

6. What meaning did the airforce acquire in WWII?

7. What mistakes did Germany and Japan make?

8. Why did Britain and the other Soviet Allies put off the opening of the second front in

Europe?

9. Why did the Allies open the second front in 1944? How was this operation called?

10. What were the casualties in the British army?

11. What were the after-effects of the war?

 

III. Make up word combinations.

1. territorial	a) system
2. miraculous	b) situation
3. great	c) actions
4. air	d) rescue
5. offensive	e) force
6. radar	f) claims
7. defense	g) damage
8. military	h) provision
9. after-war	i) bombs
10. atomic	j) installations

 

IV. What do you know about WWII from your History lessons? Tell the class about it.

 

V. Fill in the gaps with the words given below.

George VI was King of Great Britain and Northern (1)... from 1936 to 1952. He was also the last British king who had the title of (2)... of India.

He was a very modest and quiet man. He did not like to appear in the public eye, and besides, he (3).... When a young man, he served in the (4)... and air force. He participated in WWL In 1923, he married Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, who is now known as Queen Mother. They had two children, Elizabeth Alexandra Mary (now Queen Elizabeth II) and Margaret Rose.

The royal family was (5)... among people. It earned even greater (6)... during WWII when they refused to leave Buckingham Palace even when London was bombed by the German (7)…. The king and the queen tried to set an example of (8)… to the people of Britain.

People loved King George VI and (9)… over him greatly when he died from (10)… on б February 1952.

Mourned; stammered; popular; lung cancer; Emperor; air force; Ire­land; bravery; navy; respect.

VI. Crossword.

Guess the names of the politicians

and dictators of WWII period.

 

 

Britain since WWII

After WWII the balance of power in the world changed. The USA emerged as the state on which Britain and many other countries of the world depended. The USA created a special programme, the US Mar­shall Aid Programme, to help Britain recover after the war. It did quickly recover, and the life of people became much better than before the war. Wages became 30 percent higher. Now not only rich people could afford buying a car, travelling or spending money on entertainment, but also people with lower income.

It was the time when young people began to express themselves in different ways. In 1962 the Beatles, a British popular music group, made their first record and became probably the most famous and successful group ever. (97) Youth rebelled against the conservative British culture based on the strict rules of Christian morals. Some young people began to live together without getting married. Divorce became much easier and 1975 one marriage in three ended in divorce. The new youth culture was called the "permissive society". Its most vivid symbol was probably the mini skirt Still the public could strongly condemn the dis­graceful behaviour of some people. So, two cabinet ministers, one in 1963, the other in 1983, had to resign from the government because of their sexual relationship outside marriage.

The End of Empire

After the war Britain still possessed some territories outside the British Isles. By 1945 Iraq was independent. In 1947 Britain left India. The crisis in the British rule in India had been growing since the 1920s. Only Mahatma Gandhi could lead the country to the decision of this problem Britain realized that it could not rule over 300 million people without their consent.

Britain lost the Suez Canal in 1956, when the President of Egypt Colonel Nasser announced the nationalization of the Suez Canal. The Canal had been run by the Anglo-French Suez Canal Company. The Company refused to help Nasser build the Aswan High Dam, and the nationalization of the Canal was Nasser's response to this refusal. Nass­er turned to the Soviet Union for help in building the Dam. Britain and France did not want to leave the Canal and decided to act. They un­leashed war between Egypt and Israel. On October 29 Israel attacked Egypt Britain demanded both sides to withdraw, and when they re­fused Britain bombed Egyptian airfields. On November 5 Port Said, an Egyptian city, was taken. On November 2 UNO intervened in the colli­sion and called for an immediate cease-fire. Israel agreed, and Britain and France left the Canal Zone.

Britain had troubles in Cyprus. The local people used terrorist meth­ods in the attempt to gain independence. British soldiers fought against them. In the end, the island was given independence in 1959.

In 1963 Kenya became independent after a number of revolts.

Britain withdrew from the Sudan. Ghana was given independence in 1957, Nigeria in 1960.

By 1985 Britain still possessed some colonial territories. According to the treaty between Britain and China Hong Kong stayed under the British rule until 1997, then it was returned to China.

Gibraltar, a town and port on the Rock of Gibraltar on the southern coast of Spain, is the subject of disagreement between Britain and Spain, because both countries think that it should belong to one of them

 

DO YOU KNOW THAT...

... many tourists visit Gibraltar, and one of its attractions is the group of monkeys which live there, known as Barbary apes. A famous story says that when they leave the Rock, the British will also leave.

The Falklands are claimed by Argentina. These are a group of is lands in the South-West Atlantic Ocean, near Argentina. They are known as the Malvinas in Argentina. On April 2, 1982 more than 4.000 Argentine troops took control of the Falkland Islands and nearby South Georgia and Sandwich Islands. On April 25 British forces re-took South Georgia after a 2-hour battle. On May 2 a British submarine sank the Argentine cruiser "General Belgrano" with 200 sailors on board. On May 4 an Argentine fighter-bomber sank the British cruiser "Sheffield". 20 British sailors were killed. British troops landed on the Falkland Is-j lands on May 21. The Argentine forces surrendered on June 14. The British forces recaptured the Falklands.

It is sometimes thought that public support for the Conservative Party, then in power in Britain, and its leader Margaret Thatcher, increased after the Falklands War. This operation was very popular in Britain. The victory brought the United Kingdom high international] prestige. Though, there was another side of this victory. The war cost £900 million, the cost of defending the island had risen to £3 billion by1 1987. So the possession of the island became very expensive.

One country after another wanted independence. Uganda, Tangan­yika (now Tanzania) became free in 1962, and 1964 respectively. North­ern Rhodesia became Zambia, Southern Rhodesia remained a colony. Nyasaland became Malawi. Botswana and Lesotho became independ­ent in 1966, and Swaziland in 1968. South Africa left the Commonwealth in 1961.

 

The Irish Problem

In 1920 Ireland was divided into two parts. Northern Ireland be­longed to the United Kingdom, as well as it does nowadays. The basic religion in the UK is Protestantism, in Ireland it is Catholicism. In Ul­ster, Northern Ireland, there were 67 per cent of Protestants, the rest were Catholics. Catholics were dissatisfied with their rights. The Brit­ish government favoured the Protestants and discriminated against the Catholics. Many Catholics were even unable to vote. In the late 1960s people, both Catholics and Protestants, began to gather in the streets and demand a fairer system There were several bloody fights in the streets. The Irish Republican Army (IRA) appeared again after a long period of inaction. Catholics demanded withdrawal of the British troops and the unification of Northern Ireland with the Republic of Eire in the south. In the 70s Protestant extremist organizations began a campaign of violence against Catholics. In 1969 in Belfast 97 people were injured during the battles between Catholics and Protestants. On September 8, 1969 a Protestant was killed in clashes. On 14 September 1969 a British soldier was shot dead. On July 21, 1972 fifteen Catholics were killed in a bar by a Protestant extremist bomb.

In August 1971 the North Irish government ordered to arrest the people suspected of terrorism. They arrested 342 Catholics. The IRA responded by more attacks. On January 30, 1972 British soldiers fired into the demonstration of people in Londonderry killing 13 people. This day was called "Bloody Sunday". Since that time London set a direct rule over Northern Ireland, it was the end of the Irish parliament.

Betty Williams and Maired Corrigan organized a Peace Movement in Northern Ireland. After that the number of killings diminished.

In 1981 ten IRA prisoners starved themselves to death in a hunger strike. In November 1974 a bomb exploded in Birmingham killing 21 people. Then there were explosions in Guilford and Woolwich. So the prob­lem of terrorism was not settled.