At the level of text (translating poetry).

The are who main of oral translation – consecutive and simultaneous. In consecutive translation the translating stats after the original speech of some part of it has been completed. Here the translator`s strategy and the final results depend, to a great extent, on the length of th segment to be translated. If the translator is expected to translate a long speech he has to remember a great number of messages. To make this possible the interpreter has to take notes of the original messages, various systems of notation having been suggested for the purpose.

In simultaneous interpretation the interpreter is supposed to be able to give his translation while the speaker is uttering the original message. This can be achieved with a special radio or telephone-type equipment. The interpreter receives the original speech through his ear-phones and simultaneously talks into the microphome which transmits this translation to the listeners.

TRANSLATION IN TEACHING OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

Translating as a means of teaching foreign languages has no independent value of its own for it is impossible to teach all aspects of a language in their complexity by means of translation only. Nevertheless translation in foreign language teaching (and learning) can not and should not be ignored altogether since in many a case it remains

not only the most effective but also the only possible teaching means in achieving the necessary aim. That is why translation is often resorted to in the process of teaching and presenting some important aspects of a foreign language.

Translation in teaching is employed by the teacher both at the initial, at the intermediary and at the advanced stage of learning/ teaching foreign languages. But irrespective of the level at which the foreign language is studied or taught, translation is both helpful and indispensable in the following cases:

1. When introducing even simple abstract lexemes or notions, which can not easily be explained in a descriptive way or by actions (gestures): think, hate, love, actual, invincible, generally, peace, turn, friendship, image, dream, consider, feeling, firstly, immensely, at last, gray, immense, strongly, beautifully, haggis, lordship, ladyship, etc.

2. In order to save time and avoid diverting the attention of students by lengthy explications of the meaning of words, various, word-combinations or sentences in the process of reading or listening to an unfamiliar passage.

3. When checking up the comprehension of the lexical material (new words, expressions) and in order to avoid the unnecessary ambiguity which may arise in the process of teaching through «pictures», since a picture of a tree, for example, may be understood as «a tree» or as a kind of tree (oak-tree, birch-tree, pine-tree, etc.).

4. While introducing at the lesson (usually at the initial stage of teaching/learning) the new grammar/phonetical material, especially the phenomena which do not exist in the native tongue (e.g. the continuous or the perfect forms of the verb, different passive constructions, infinitival, gerundial, and participal constructions (secondary predication complexes).

5. When revising the lexical or grammar material studied at the lesson/at previous lessons or answering questions like: ‘What is the Ukrainian for the «gerund», sequence of tenses, the «progressive/ perfect form» of the verb?’ etc.

6. While discriminating the meaning of synonyms or antonyms of the foreign language, for example: explain the difference between great and large, small and tiny, tall and high, clever and unwise, etc.

7. When checking up the knowledge of students in written and oral tests on lexical or grammar material.

8. When introducing idiomatic expressions which is mostly impossible to teach and learn otherwise than on the basis of translating (cf. Hobson’s choice, to play hooky, look before you leap; when at Rome, do as the Romans do; the game is worth the candle, etc.).

9. Before learning any text by heart (poems, excerpts of prose or the roles of characters in plays).

10. When dealing with characteristic national figures of speech (metaphors, epithets, similes, hyperboles, etc.) in the process of reading or translating the belles-lettres passages even at the advanced stage of studying a foreign language.

11. When comparing the expressive means in the system of the source language to those in the target language, etc.

Translation helps the student to master the expressive means in the source and in the target language. In the process of translating the student establishes sets of equivalent substitutes in the target language for the correspondent lexical, grammatical or stylistic phenomena of the source language. No wonder that the student at any stage of learning a foreign language, when not understanding some word, word-combination or sentence always resorts to intuitive translating it into his native language.

6. Formal types: Written - Oral (consecutive - synchronic) – Mixed

According to the Levels of analysis and synthesis in translation

1) Word level

2) Phrase level

3) Clause or sentence level

4) Paragraph level

5) Text level

6) Pragmatics, or socio-cultural, level

(А. Л. Бурак "Введение в практику письменного перевода с русского языка на английский", Москва 2002)

B Дословный перевод можно считать своего рода заготовкой, или "болванкой", которую еще необходимо обработать, то есть отредактировать. Дословный перевод может нас устроить в тех случаях, когда в пере водимом примере в обоих языках одинаковая структура предложения, а слова в одном языке имеют однозначные соответствия в другом.

Для передачи смысла предложений мы прибегаем к литературному (адекватному) переводу, который заключается в передаче смысла исходя из нормы русского языка. При литературном переводе (а именно он и считается правильным) для передачи значения лексических единиц, используются эквиваленты (т.е. прямые соответствия), аналоги (слова синонимического ряда) или описательные средства (если нет эквивалента или аналога, например privacy - право на частную жизнь). (В. С. Слепович "Курс перевода", Минск 2002)

Units of translation depend on the text itself, i.e. to what point can I understand the meaning.

Both the word and the sentence, the period and the paragraph must be subject to analysis and interpretation in context; when it comes time to translate, we work with an organic semantic whole, the text, which is articulated through subunits of meaning. Therefore, the unit of translation is the entire text.

Newmark insists that the unit of translation, understood as a segment of the original text from which the translator can begin his or her reformulation in a different language, is part of a movable scale: “The word, the lexical unit, the collocation, the group, the clause and the sentence–rarely the paragraph, never the text”.

This great linguist defends an intermediate posture between the restricted unit of Vinay and Darbelnet and the laxer unit of the speech analysis theorists, who consider that the unit of translation is the entire text.

“Unit of translation”, by contrast, is a phrase that is normally used to make reference to the unit of analysis or interpretation and should perhaps be reserved to desginate a segment of the dialectic process of the negotiation of the meaning of the source text and its placement in the target language.

Levels of equivalence.

Equivalence is a measure of semantic similarity between ST and TT.

In the first type of equivalence it is only the purport of communication which is retained.

e.g. A rolling stone gathers no moss. – Кому на місці не сидиться, той добра не наживе.

The second type of equivalence is designated as “identification of the situation”.

e.g. He answered the telephone. – Він зняв трубку.

The third type of equivalence implies retention in the translation of the method of its description plus the identification of the situation and the purport of communication.

e.g. You are not serious? – Ви шуткуєте?

The fourth type of equivalence presupposes retention in the translation of the invariant meaning of the syntactic structures plus the three above-mentioned meaningful components of the original, namely: the purport of communication, the identification of the situation, the method of its description.

e.g. He was standing with his arms crossed. – Він стояв, схрестивши руки на грудях.

The fifth type of equivalence suggests the retention of the five meaningful components of the original: the word semantics, the invariant meaning of the syntactic structures, the method of the description, the identity of the situation and the purport of communication.

e.g. Ukraine gained its independence in 1991. – Україна отримала незалежність в 1991 році.

A translation event is accomplished at a definite level of equivalence.

In practice the levels of equivalence are encountered as 1) substitution of printed letter for printed letter; 2) substitution of morpheme for morpheme; 3) substitution of word for word; 4) substitution of phrase for phrase; 5) substitution of sentence for sentence; 6) substitution of context larger than a sentence for a similar one; 7) substitution on the rank of situations.