Опозиційна основа грам. категорії. Типи опозиції. Приватна і бінарна опозиція.

Опозиційна основа грам. категорії. Типи опозиції. Приватна і бінарна опозиція.

The oppositional basis of the grammatical category.

It is a correlation of lingual forms by means of which a certain function is expressed. The members of an opposition possess both common and differential features. The common features are formed as a basis for comparison. Differential features immediately express the functioning meaning. According to the number of the members,oppositions may be binary, quaternary, etc.

In grammar multi-member oppositions are generally reduced to a binary opposition; the opposition of aspect is reduced to two sets of oppositions: continuous, non-continuous, and perfect, non-perfect.

The qualitative types of oppositions were originally formulated by Nicolay Trubetskoy for phonology. They are privative, gradual and equipollent. The privative binary opposition is the major type of categorical opposition in grammar. It is formed by a contrastive group of members, one of which posses a certain differential feature (mark, while the other member is characterized by the absence of this feature). The former is called marked, strong opposition. The member in which the feature is unmarked, - weak or negative.

Generally in grammar the marked member of an opposition is structurally more complicated (past - non-past, future - non-future).

The gradual opposition is formed by contrastive group of members which are distinguished not by the presence or absence of feature but by its degree. In grammar it is found in the category of comparison of the adjective and the adverb.

The equipollent opposition is formed by a contrastive group of levels, that are distinguished by different positive features (am/is/are present a correlation of the person forms of the verb to be).

 

 

Граматичні класи слів. Критерії диференціації.

 

The definition of parts of speech as traditional grammatical classes of words. Semantic, formal, and functional criteria in differentiating parts of speech.

A class of words is a complex of words differentiated on the basis of some characteristic relevant for the organization of the lexicon as a whole. The main types of classes of words arc grammatical, chorological, semantic, and stylistic.

Parts of speech are traditional grammatical classes of words, or lexico-grammatical categories.

In linguistics there are several major approaches to the classification into parts of speech - traditional, descriptive, functional, onomaseological.

The descriptive approach differentiates words on the basis of their position in the sentence.

The functional approach means the study of syntagmatic relational properties of words in speech - the binary opposition of group of words that are not interchangeable either formally or in their content.

The omomascological approach investigates the specific features of nominations by different classes of words and how these features predetermine grammatical derivational categories.

The traditional approach differentiates parts of speech on the basis of their semantic, morphological and syntactic features. This polydifferential principle was worked out for the Russian language by I. V. Scherba and by V. V. Vinogradov for the English language.

The semantic criterion means evaluation of the abstract semantics of all the words of the given class (e. g. nouns denote substances, verbs-processes, etc.).

The formal criterion presupposes determination of typical elements of the structure of the words (grammatical and derivational affixes).

The syntactic criterion serves to determine functioning of the words of the given class in the sentences (e. g. the most characteristic functions of the noun are those of subject and object).

4. The status of article in the grammatical system. Stages of investigation

The category of article determination is expressed mostly by the article. In many modern linguistic theories the article is not viewed as a separate part of speech but as a determinor of the noun. Some grammars included it into the adjective class, others regarded as a kind of a morpheme. To determine the segmental status of the article, i.e. to decide whether it is a purely auxiliary element which functions as a component of a morphological category or it is a separate word, M. Blokh considered the properties of the article in 4 successive stages:

1) asymentic evaluation of the A. At this stage the task was to define the stable element in the grammatical meaning of the definite/indefinite A which doesn’t depend on the context. The invariable grammatical meaning of the indefinite A is the meaning of generalization. It refers the objects denoted by the noun to a certain class of similar objects. The definite A has the invariant meaning of individualization or identification of the referent of the noun. It has the function of restriction oк concretization;

2) a situational estination of the usage of A, i.e. the context in which the definite/indefinite A is normally used. The indefinite A plus noun introduces the centre of communicative type of the utterance, while the definite A introduces the type of information which is prepared by the effect of “already known” – the starting point of communication. Another situational characteristics of the A is in its immedeate connection with 2 types of attributes with the nouns. The descriptive attribute (nice, worrying) requires the indefinite A, while the restrictive attribute (the same, the very) requires the definite A;

3) analysis of the categorial features of A in the light of the oppositional theory Investigating the A determination M. Blokh proposes 2 binary corelations connected with each other hierachally. A determination

The a/ zero A

identification generalization

relative G. absolute G.

(classification) (abstraction)

4) paradigmatic generalization There are 2 paradigms of indefiniteness which is made up by the indefinite/ zero A as well as the indefinite pronouns (some, any, every, each, another, other). The paradigm od definiteness is made up by the definite article as well as definite and possessive demonstrative pronouns (this, that, my, your).

In the conclusion of the 4-stage analysis M. Blokh proposes to consider the A the intermideary between the word and the morpheme.

Пра – германська мова та її розподіл на три гілки.

Genetically English belongs to the Germanic or Teutonic groupe of labguage which is one of the 12 groups in the Indo – European linguistic family. Germanic languages (GL) are one of the major groups. In the modern world the GL are: English, German, Netherlandish, Danish, Frisian, etc.

The history of the Germanic groups begons with the appearance of the Protogermanic language which is the parentlanguage of the Germanic group. It’s supposed to have been split from relative Indo – European tongues sometime between the 15^th and 10^th c. B.C. The ancint Germans or Teutons moved further north then other tribes and settled under the southern coast of the Baltic Sea in the region of the Elbe. It’s here they developed their 1^st specifically Germanic features which made them a separate dgroup in the Indo – European family.Towards the neginning of our era the common periob of Germanic history came to the end. The Teutons had extended over larger territory and the Protogermanic language broke into three branches:

1. EAST GERMANIC,

2. WEST GERMANIC,

3. NORTH GERMANIC.

 

EAST GERMANIC.

The EG subgroup was found by the tribes who returned from Scandinavian at the beginning of our era. The most numerous and powerful of them were the Goths. The Gothic language is now dead. It has been preserved in written records of the 4^th – 6^th c. The Goths were the 1^st of the Teutons to become Christian. In the 4^th c. Ulfilas, a West gothic bishop, made a translation of the Gospels from Greek to Gothic using a modifying form of the Greek alphabet. It’s known “ Silver Codex ” as it’s written with silver and golden letters.

NORTH GERMANIC.

The Teutons who stayed in Scandinavia after the departure of the Goths gave rise to the North Germanic ubgroup of language. The NG tribes lived on the southern coast of the Scandinavia Peninsula and in northern Debmark. The speech of the NG tribes showed a little dialectal variation until at the 9^th c. And is regarded as a sort of “Common North Germanic Parentlanguage” called “Old Scandinavian”. It reached us in runic inscriptions dated from the 3^rd to the 9^th c. They’re known as a runic alphabet or the Runes. The principal linguistic differentiation in Scandinavia corresponded to the political devission into Sweden, Denmark and Norway. The earlest written records in Old danish abd Old Norwegion and Old Swidish dated from the 13^th c.

WEST GERMANIC.

WG was probably quite distinct even at the beginning of our era. On the eve of their Great Migration of the4th and 5^th c. The WG included several tribes: theFranks, the Frisians, the Futes and the Saxons. In the early Middle Ages the Franks consolidated in the powerful tribel Alliance. Towards the 8^th c. Their kingdom grew into one of the largest states in West Europe.Though the names “France”, “French” are derived from the tribel names of the Franks, the Frankonian dialects were not spoken there. They were spoken in the Extreme North of the Empire. In the later Middle Ages they developed into:

- Deutsch (the language of the Law Coubntries),

- Rlemish (the language of Flander).

20. Закони Я.Грима і К.Вернера.

 

Proto-Germanic (PG) = Common/ Primitive Germanic= Primitive Teutonic=Simply Germanic.

PG is an entirely pre-historical language: it was never recorded in written form. In the 19^th c. It was reconstructed by methods of comparative linguistics from written evidence in descendent language.

At the earliest stages of history PG was fundumentally one language, though dialectally coloured. In its later stages dialectal differences grew, so that towards the beginning of our era Germanic appeares divided into dialectal groups and tribal dialects.

There’re three groups of Germanic:

1) East Germanic;

2) North Germanic;

3) West Germanic.

The specific pecularities of Consonants (C) constitute the most remarkable distinctive feature of the Germanic linguistic group.

The C in Germanic look “shifted” as compared with the C of non-Germanic language.

The changes of C in PG were first formulated in terms of a phonetic law by Jacob Grimm in the early 19^th c. And are often called Grimm’s Law (the 1^st or PG consonant shift).

Voiceless plosive developed in PG into voiceless fricatives; Indo-European voiced plosives were shifted to voiceless plosives; Indo-European voiced aspirated plosives were reflected as voiced fricatives or as pure voiced plosives.

Another important series of C changes in PG was discovered in the late 19^th c. By a Danish scholar, Carl Verner – Verner’s Law. Verner’s Law explains some correspondances of C which seemed to contradict Grimm’s Law and were for a long time regarded as exceptions.:

Voiceles fricatives [f, th, x], [s ] became voiced between vowels if the preceding vowel was unstressed.

The process of voicing:

Pa’ter- fa’thar- ‘fathar. In late PG, the phonetic conditions that caused the voicing had disappeared: the stress had shifted to the 1^st syllable.

 

21 1 strong verbs / 7 classes with different gradation series:

-an for Inf.

- on for past participle

- en for Part II

- (hundread of strong V).

 

2 weak / 3 classes with different stems:

class I Inf. ended

in – an; - ian

Past - de; - ede;

Part. II – d; - ed.

3 minor groups

preterite – presents

Suppletive Anomalous

 

The Present tenses were Past tense forms; Past tense were made with dental suffixes.

 

22 Great V shift involved the change of all middle English long vowels & monophftongs

with dyphtongs, the first element been contrasted to the secondary as a more open

sound: (ao; ai; ei;): teamer - time. The Shift was not followed by any regular

spelling – changes, it was not reflected in a writting forms.

The short V were more stable, than the long V.

Only 2 out of 5 underwent alteration Growth of long monophthongs and dyphthongs due

To vocalisation of consonants.

(r) made the preceeding V more open and retracted: the cluster (er) changed into (ar)

deork – derk.

 

23. Old English vocabulary consisted of 3 layers: native words: names of natural

phenomena, plants, animals (see, moon, tree, nail).

- foreign element (Celtic borrowings) - proper names, place names: Exe, Avon,

Thames, Dover, Man – chester.

- Latin Influence - 3 periods, the third period in 6 –th century, introduction of

Christianity: apostolus – apostol – apostle.

Candela – candel - candle.

Also words of trade: deal, to trade;

Measurements - pund - (pound), ynce - inch.

Agriculture: win - vinum,

Building: chalk, copper.

 

№24. Еволюція приголосних у середньо англійському та ранньому ново англійському періодах: розвиток африкатів і шиплячих [t∫], [∫], [d3], [3].

English consonants were on the whole far more stable than vowels. Such consonants as sonorants [m, n, l], the plosives [p, b, t, d] & also [k, g] in most positions have not changed. The most important developments in the history of English consonants were the growth of new sets of sounds, - affricates and sibilants.

In OE there were no affricates and no sibilants, except [s, z]. Three new phonemes appeared [t∫], [∫], [d3]. In early ME they began to be indicated by special letters & digraphs, which came into use mainly under the influence of the French scribal tradition – ch, tch, g, dg, sh, ssh, sch.

Development of sibilants and affricates in Early Middle English:

OE ME NE

k’ t∫

cild child child

g’ d3

bryc3e bridge bridge

sk’ ∫

fisc fish fish

As a result of these changes the consonant system in Late ME was in some aspects different from the OE system. Plosive consonants were contrasted to the new affricates. Another development accounting for the appearance of sibilants & affricates in English is dated in Early NE and is connected with the phonetic assimilation of lexical borrowings. In the numerous loan-words of Romance origin adopted in ME and Early NE the stress fell on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, e.g. ME na’cioun, plea’saunce (NE nation, pleasance).

In Early NE the clusters [sj, zj, tj, dj] – through reciprocal assimilation in unstressed position – regularly changed into [∫,3, t∫, d3]. Three of these sounds, [∫, t∫, d3], merged with the phonemes already existing in the language, while the fourth, [3], made a new phoneme. Now the 4 sounds formed a well-balanced system of two correlated pairs: [∫,3], [t∫, d3].

Development of sibilants and affricates in Early New English:

Late ME NE

sj ∫

condicioun [kondi’sju:n] condition

zj 3

visioun [vi’zju:n] vision

tj t∫

nature [na’tju:r(ә)] nature

dj d3

souldier [soul’djer] soldier.

But the assimilation is not completed. It’s going on even now, in ME.

 

№25. Основні лінгвістичні поняття та категорії стилістики .

Stylistics (according to Kyiv School) is a linguistic discipline which studies nominative and communicative language units and the principles according to which the units of all language levels are selective for achieving a certain pragmatic aim in different communicative situations. (According to Moscow School) it is an investigation of synonymous linguistic means for the purpose of finding out their spheres of the applicability.

Function is a role of a language unit or a subsystem of such units in communication.

Aim is a presupposed result of conscious human activity.

Pragmatic aim is the aim which consists in changing the state of the listener as the result of communication.

Linguistic (constructive) aim lies in building an utterance from the structural elements of the language for achieving a certain pragmatic aim.

Information, in term of philosophy, is the inner content of the process of reflection which results in changing the characteristics of some objects due to the influence of other objects they interact with.

Variant presents the language units of different levels.

Invariant is an element which is clear of the language elements as individual peculiarities of communication.

Opposition is the relationship of partial difference between two partially similar elements of a language.

Marked members of opposition are the members characterized by the presence of the distinctive feature.

Unmarked members of opposition – in equipollent opposition the members which differ according to the changes in the distinctive feature.

Syntagmatic relations are relations between language units of a level within the limits of a higher level which are combined associations in contiguity.

Paradigmatic relations are relations between language elements of a level which are combined associations in likeness in the language (e.g. head – chief – director).

Speech synonyms are synonyms which appear in (definite) speech or situational context (e.g. to raise prices – to jack up prices).

Language synonyms are the synonyms which are taken out of the paradigmatic relations which connect the synonymic range (in particular linguistic situation) (e.g. mansion – house – cottage – human inhabitation; infant – child – kid).

 

 

№26. Виразні засоби та стилістичні прийоми як основні категорії стилістики .

EM is a marked member of stylistic or functional-stylistic opposition, which has an invariant meaning and is connected with the plan of language.

SD is formed in speech by means of those syntagmatic relations which appear between speech units in the text between stylistically marked and stylistically unmarked speech units.

 

Expressive Means (EM)	Stylistic Devices (SD)
1. Language elements of different levels, which are stylistically marked in the boundaries of the given language level. 2. Stylistic meaning is connected with EM. 3. Stylistic meaning depends on the paradigmatic relations of the elements of one level.   E.g. Went in Mr. Pickwick. – In went Mr. Pickwick. (Ch. Dickens “Pickwick Papers”).	1. Variants of combination of speech units of the lower level in the boundaries of the higher level.   2. Stylistic meaning appears in the context of some speech units. 3. Stylistic meaning depends on the syntagmatic relations between the units of one or different levels.   E.g. O, upward from the dead. Thou bringest tally, and a pact, new bound, of living brotherhood! (Krein “The Bridge”).

 

SD: I. Morphology: SD based on the use of Nouns, Articles, Adjectives, Pronouns,

Adverbs, Verbs.

II. Syntax: SD based on: 1) the interaction of syntactical constructions:

- parallelism (John kept silence. Mary kept thinking.);

- chiasmus (He sat and watched me. I set and watched him.);

- anaphora (Ergo she did not, ergo he…);

- epiphora (I come to you on the level, you are on the level.).

2)the transposition of syntactical meaning in context:

- rhetorical question (Isn’t that to bad? – That is too bad.).

3) the transformation of types and forms of

connection between clauses and sentences:

- parcellation (The book is good. I’ve read it. I’d like to

Read it once again.);

- coordination instead of subordination;

- subordination instead of coordination.

EM: I. Syntax: EM based on: 1) the reduction of sentence structure:

- ellipsis (Just arrived);

- aposiopesis (My God! If the police come and find me

here…);

- nominative sentences (Evening. Spring.);

- asyndetal sentences.

2) the redundancy of the sentence structure:

- repetition (She talked in fact and talked and talked);

- syntactic totology;

- polysyndeton;

- emphatic constructions (It was he who did it).

3) the violation of word-order in the sentence

structure:

- stylistic inversion (From behind me came Joe’s voice);

- syntactical split;

- detachment.

 

 

27. Stylistic semasiology of English language.

 

Semasiology is a branch of linguistics which studies semantics or meaning of the linguistic units belonging to different language levels.

Lexico-semasiology analysis the meaning of words and word combinations,relations between these meanings and the changes these meanings undergo.

Stylistic semasiology is concerned only with those semantic relations

and changes which form the basis of SD and EM.

The subject matter of stylistic semasiology is stylistic semantics that is addition of meanings of language units which may be given rise to by: 1) the unusual denotative reference of word, word combination,utterances,texts (EM); 2) the unusual distribution of the meanings of these units (SD)

Semas. EM are figures of substitution that is differ means of secondary nomination.The nomination is based on the usage of existing words and word-combinations to denote new notions or to give new names to already known objects.

Secondary nomination is not completely.It is carried out according to certain principles or rules.Most commonly the transfer of name occurs:

1. on the basis of similarity or lieness(real or imaginary) or 2 objects belonging to different spheres of reality which are regarded as such due to individual or collective perception.

2. on the basis of contiguityor some logical relation or associations between different objects:

“ Я за той черной шляпой стою” (в очереди)

 

 

Опозиційна основа грам. категорії. Типи опозиції. Приватна і бінарна опозиція.