Exercise 1. Read and translate the text.

Передмова.

Методичні вказівки призначені для студентів другого етапу навчання механіко-енергетичного факультету спеціальності 6.090500 „Теплоенергетика”.

Матеріал складається з оригінальних текстів, які відображають комплекс основних понять, з якими стикаються студенти спеціальності „Теплоенергетика”. Методичні вказівки готують студентів до читання і розуміння оригінальної англомовної літератури за фахом.

Матеріал методичних вказівок складається з трьох уроків та текстів для додаткового читання. Кожен урок містить основний (А) і два додаткових (В і С) тексти, словник-мінімум, пояснення найскладніших для перекладу словосполучень, виразів чи окремих речень. Текст А призначений для вивчаючого, текст В – для ознайомлювального, а текст С – для переглядового читання. Також текст с при бажанні можна використовувати для аудіювання.

В методичних вказівках дається велика кількість різноманітних вправ, спрямованих на удосконалення навичок словотворення, а також повторення і закріплення граматичного і лексичного матеріалу.

Закріплення лексичних одиниць, що згруповані в словниках-мінімумах, забезпечується їх багаторазовим повторенням в текстах і вправах до уроків.

 

Lesson 1.

Part A.

accomplish	виконувати, закінчувати
add	додавати
affect	впливати
aforesaid	вищезгаданий
amount	об’єм, кількість
appliance	прилад, пристрій
assume	набирати
average	середній
capable	здатний, здібний
capacity	місткість, ємність, потужність
change	зміна
condition	умова
conservation	збереження
conversion	розмова, бесіда
create	створювати
destroy	руйнувати
difficulty	складність
disadvantage	недолік
disappear	зникати
distance	відстань
enemy	ворог
energy	енергія
example	приклад
exert	зусилля, напруження
expend	розширювати
force	сила, міць, примушувати
friction	тертя
generator	генератор
height	висота
hence	віднині, з цього часу
hold	тримати
horse-power	кінська сила
kind	сорт, різновид
kinetic	кінетичний
later	наступний, пізніший
machine	машина
measure	міра
mechanics	механіка
mention	згадувати
move	рухатися
nevertheless	як би там не було, все-таки
object	предмет, річ
perform	виконувати
phenomena	явище
physicist	фізик
potential	потенціал
power	сила, потужність
precise	точний
push	штовхати
quantity	кількість
rate	норма, ставка
relate	стосуватися, мати відношення
restrict	обмежений
science	наука
spring	пружина, стрибати
stairs	сходи
strike	бити, завдавати ударів
term	термін
transform	перетворювати
utilize	використовувати
waterfall	водоспад
weight	вага

Exercise 1. Read and translate the text.

THE SCIENTIFIC MEANING OF THE WORDS "WORK", "ENERGY" AND "POWER".

As previously mentioned, many words that we use in our everyday speech assume a more precise and often restricted meaning in the language of science. The words "work", "energy" and "power" considered in this article are quite familiar to everyone; nevertheless, their use in scientific terminology presents certain difficulties. Discuss­ing these three terms in some detail is the subject of our present article for we know of their being often misused.

The word "work" may serve as an example. Besides its being an English word in common usage, it is also a scien­tific term which has a special meaning when used in me­chanics.

When we are standing and holding a heavy weight, when we are studying or teaching at the institute – we say than we are working. Studying may he very hard. We know that it will make you tired at times; nevertheless, no physicist will ever call it work. The scientific term "work" is much more restricted. Mechanical work is per­formed only when a force moves some object through a distance.

One can perform work by lifting a box from the floor. Pushing the box along the floor against friction also means doing work. According to physical laws you cannot per­form any work scientifically speaking by pushing an auto­mobile which is standing on the road, unless it starts mov­ing. Thus, in order to do mechanical work two conditions are necessary, namely, there must be a force and it must act through a distance. Generally speaking, the greater the force and the distance moved, the greater the work performed.

Work and energy are very closely related. Indeed, one may say that the energy of a body or system is the capa­city of that system or body for doing work. Power is re­lated to both work and energy. It is the rate of performing the work in a unit of time.

While energy is the capacity for work, power is the quantity of work done in a unit of time. When a kilogram is lifted to a height of one metre, we say that a kilogram-metre of work is accomplished. The amount of the accomp­lished work does not depend on the time spent on lifting this weight.

Considering power requires considering the rate of per­forming the work. For example, if a weight is lifted to a height of one metre in one second, twice as much power will he required than in case that very weight were lifted to a height of one metre in two seconds.

If someone carried a 15-kg box up the stairs in 10 sec, the staircase being 6 m high, he would work at the ave­rage rate of 90 kgm divided by 10 sec, or 9 kgm per se­cond.

Measuring power we generally use such units as waits, kilowatts, and kilogram-metres per second. Seventy five kg.m.s. (kilogram-metres per second) or 736 W (watts) form a horse-power. A horse power is a unit for measuring the amount of work performed per second.

Discussing the term "energy", we shall follow the transformation of one form of energy into another.

 

Exercise 2. Read and translate the following words and phrases:

term, amount, object, science, average, friction, move, condition, accomplish, precise, measure, relate, restrict, perform, power, capacity, weight, as previously mentioned, quite familiar, no physicist will ever call it.., scientific term, according to.., namely, one may say, twice as much, in order to….

 

Exercise 3. Give English equivalents of the words:

кінська сила, термін, одиниця, енергія, ват, потужність, кількість, робота, піднімати, предмет, умова, кіловат, секунда, приклад, рух, тіло, відстань, обмежувати.

 

Exercise 4. Answer the questions.

1. What is the subject of the present article?

2. What terms are discussed in this article?

3. Is the term “pressure” dealt with here?

4. When is mechanical work performed?

5. Do you perform any work while lifting a box from the floor?

6. When is mechanical work performed?

7. What conditions are necessary in order to do mechanical work?

10. What is necessary for considering power?

11. What units are used for measuring power?

 

Exercise 5. State if the following sentences are true to the fact or false. Correct the false sentences.

1. When you are studying you can say that you are working.

2. To do mechanical work there must be a force.

3. The greater the force and the distance moved, the greater the work that has been performed.

4. Power is related to both work and energy.

5. For measuring work we use such units as watts and kilowatts.

6. The “work” is a scientific term which is never used in our everyday life.

 

Exercise 6. Write out the keywords and phrases and make up a plan.

Exercise 7. Retell the text.

 

Part B.

Exercise 1. Read and translate the text.

Energy and Its Forms.

Scientifically speaking, energy is the capacity for doing work. It is well known that a falling weight striking an object exerts a force on that object and makes it move a certain distance. It means that the falling weight performs work. The above case is typical of many other cases where first work is done on an object or system and then the object or system, in its turn, does work on something else. One must perform work in order to wind the spring of a clock. The spring returns the work when it makes the me­chanism of the clock run for a number of hours. When a body is capable of performing work it possesses energy. It is quite clear that the more work a body can do, the more energy it possesses.

There are numerous forms of energy, such as: electrical, chemical, mechanical, heat energy and so on. In mecha­nics, they are interested in two special kinds of energy, namely, kinetic energy and potential energy which are dealt with further on.

It is quite possible to transform one form of energy into another. Take a waterfall as an example: when water falls from a height, the energy is said to change from po­tential to kinetic. If there is a hydroelectric plant at the waterfall, as is often the case in our country, the energy of the falling water is used to drive the turbines. The turbi­nes are driven by the kinetic energy of the water. Since it is difficult to transfer mechanical energy over a great distance, it is used here to drive generators. These genera­tors, in their turn, change mechanical energy into electric energy.

They say that "fire is man's best friend and worst ene­my". If fire is controlled, the heat given off can be made to do many useful und important things. Coal or any other fuel is burned to provide the heat which will be required for driving our engines and turbines. These, in their turn, are expected to produce the mechanical work used in num­berless ways.

We shall see later on how heat in an electric wire was first used to produce our electric lamp. This is a conver­sion of electric energy into heat, the heat being so intense in the wire that it becomes white-hot and produces light.

Kinetic energy is the energy of motion, while potential energy is that of position. One cannot but add here that the kinetic energy of an object is the energy that it possesses because of its speed. Any moving object is expected to perform work simply because it is moving, the quantity of energy depend­ing on its mass and velocity. It has been found that the greater the mass and the velocity, the greater is the kine­tic energy.

As stated above the energy possessed by an object owing to its position is called potential energy. Compressing or stretching a spring we do work that is stored up in the spring as potential energy. It is neces­sary to release the spring in order to get almost the same amount of work.

One cannot say that in the above case all the work expended has really been utilized. In spite of our expend­ing a certain amount of work it is impossible to utilize it in full. Due to friction we always get less useful work out of a machine than we put into it. Part of the energy which is developed by mechanical devices is lost in the form of useless heat.

 

Exercise 2. Answer the following questions:

1. What subject is dealt with in the present article?

2. What do we call energy?

3. Does the falling weight perform work?

4. When does a body posses energy?

5. What forms of energy do you know?

6. Is it difficult to transfer mechanical energy over a great distance?

7. What do we call kinetic energy?

8. What do we call potential energy?

9. Why do we get less useful work out of a machine than we put into it?

10. Can one form of energy be transformed into another?

 

Part C.

Lesson 2.

Part A.

ability	здібність, здатність
acceptable	прийнятний
accurate	точний, правильний
amount	кількість, загальна сума
appear	з’являтись, здаватись
associate	тісно пов’язаний, сполучати
assume	припускати, вважати, набирати
average	середній, звичайний
capable	здатний, здібний
carefully	ретельно
cause	причина, підстава, спричиняти
cellar	льох, підвал
certainly	звичайно, напевно
change	зміна, переміна
consider	розглядати, обдумувати
contemporary	сучасний
convert	перетворювати
create	творити, утворювати
crucible	критичний, вирішальний
define	визначати, окреслювати
definite	визначений, точний
depend	залишати, покластися
destroy	руйнувати
determine	визначати, примушувати
due to	завдяки
energy	енергія
equal	рівний
exist	існувати
expect	сподіватися, чекати
explain	пояснювати
extremely	вкрай
fluid	рідкий, текучий, рідина
forget	забувати
friction	тертя
furnace	піч, топка
furthermore	до того ж, крім того
gain	одержувати, заробляти
grain	гроно
heat	теплота
hence	віднині
however	проте, незважаючи на
increase	зростати, збільшувати
indicate	вказувати, означати
internal	внутрішній
lake	озеро
mean	засіб, спосіб
measure	міра, захід
melt	розчинятися, танути
mercury	ртуть
motion	рух
object	предмет, об’єкт, мета
observation	спостереження
perform	виконувати, здійснювати
phenomenon	явище
prove	доводити
random	випадковий
remain	залишатися
require	вимагати, потребувати
rise	піднімати, зростати, збільшуватись
sensation	почуття, відчуття
state	стан, становище, заявляти
substance	речовина, матерія
supply	постачання, постачати
suppose	гадати, вважати
surrounding	середовище, оточення
term	період, строк, термін
transmit	передавати
volume	том, кількість, ємність
weight	вага, гиря

What is Heat?

When heat, a form of energy, is supplied to a substance, we expect it to produce a rise of temperature. In other words, heat usually causes an increase in the average kinetic energy of the random motion of the molecules of which the substance is made up. However, heat may also produce a change of state without any temperature change.

Today heat is known to be a form of energy. But about a century ago heat was considered to be a kind of a weightless substance which was neither created, nor destroyed. This substance called "caloric" was believed to pass from a hotter body to a colder one, eventually both of them coming to the same temperature. To explain that phenomenon was easy: a hot body, it was supposed, contains more of the heat fluid, i.e. caloric, than a cold one; and this fluid flows from hot to cold. Again, people knew that it takes more caloric to raise the temperature of a pound of water 10⁰ than a pound of iron. They naturally supposed water to have higher caloric content than the iron. In fact, the caloric theory of heat as it was called accounted for almost everything that was known about heat at that time, except one important phenomenon, namely: the production of heat due to friction. However, numerous laboratory experiments demonstrated that each time when mechanical energy was expended as a result of friction, a corresponding amount of heat was produced.

In spite of that inability to explain the production of heat by friction, the caloric theory of heat seemed to be the only acceptable theory.

Great scientist and poet Lomonosov was among the first to find and state that heat phenomena were due to the motion of molecules. That statement of his resulted from many carefully performed laboratory experiments, from study and observation.

Lomonosov's theory laid the foundation for the present day molecular-kinetic theory of heat. As was often the case he left his contemporaries far behind and his statement was finally proved long after his death. The caloric theory of heat is known to have existed almost up to the middle of the 19th century.

The unit of heat is called a therm or a calorie; the latter term appears to come from the Latin word "calor" which means heat.

A calorie is defined as the amount of heat required at a pressure of one atmosphere to raise the temperature of onegram of water one degree Centigrade. (We know the gram to be a metric weight equal to 15.432 grains of the English system of weights).

One should not think that the very amount of heat which will raise the temperature of one gram of water from 0 to 1⁰ C will also raise the temperature of the same mass of water from, say, 60 to 61⁰ C. Experiments have shown that the quantities of heat to be required in these two cases are slightly different. Hence, the true calorie is defined as that quantity of heat which will raise the temperature of 1 gr of water from 19.5 to 20.5⁰C.

 

Part B.

Heat and Temperature.

As we have just noted, there was a time when heat was supposed to be a sort of substance or fluid which flowed from a body of high temperature to one of lower temperature. That substance was given the name "caloric". At present, we know heat to be a form of energy and to be capable of performing work. Heat may be converted into mechanical energy and heat, in its turn, is generated when mechanical motion is destroyed by friction.

An object is said to be hot if its temperature is higher than that of our body, or cold if its temperature is much lower. If a hot body is brought into contact with a cold one, the hot body will cool and the cold body will become warmer. We explain it by the fact that the hot body has transferred some amount of heat to the cold one. If two bodies A and B are brought into contact and heat is transferred from A to B, we say that A is at a higher temperature than B, or that A is hotter than B.

Hot and cold are not very definite terms, nor are our temperature sensations very accurate. A room may seem to be warm when one enters it after being out in the cold. On the other hand it may seem to be cold after one has been near a hot furnace.

Our temperature sensations are found to be neither accurate nor reliable and the differences of temperature are generally defined by other means.

To measure temperature it is necessary to choose some kind of temperature scale. This may be done by means of some substance which changes with temperature changes. For example, a liquid such as mercury is known to expand when it is heated. Therefore, its change of volume due to heating is often used to measure the change of temperature (this is the principle the mercury thermometer is based upon).

 

Part C.

Internal Energy.

A thermometer tells you the temperature of a substance but not the amount of internal energy in it. We know a cup of water at boiling point to be hotter than the water in a lake, however, the lake contains much more energy than the cup does. A large piece of ice will melt if thrown into the lake but only a small piece of ice could be melted by the hot water in the cup. The lake can give up more energy than the cup of water, even though the lake is at a much lower temperature. Thus, to measure the amount of energy given to an object, one must do more than simply determine its temperature change.

Here is another example to be considered. Let us take a small cup of boiling water and a large container also full of boiling water.

Both of them, certainly, have the same temperature. Thermometers would show the same reading for both the water in the cup and that in the container. They do not, however, contain the same amount of energy. It takes much more heat to make the water boil in the large container than it is required to boil the small cup of water. Again we see that the temperature of an object does not indicate the amount of energy to be contained in that object.

The amount of energy in a given body appears to depend on the nature of the body as well as on its size and temperature. Two bodies of equal weight but of dissimilar materials may have the same temperature but contain quite different amounts of energy. A 100-gram ball of iron at a given temperature is known to contain a smaller quantity of energy than does a 100-gram aluminium ball at the same temperature. „But what does the expression the same temperature really mean?” – one might ask. Two bodies are assumed to have the same temperature if when one of these bodies is placed in contact with the other one neither will transfer heat to the other.

A heated metal ball to be placed in contact with a piece of ice will transmit its heat to the piece of ice, that heat melting the ice. The fact that the metal ball loses heat shows that the two materials are not at the same temperature. If this metal ball is placed in the crucible of an electric furnace, the ball will gain sufficient heat from the crucible to make it melt. It shows that the crucible is much hotter than the ball. In any process where heat is transferred the body which is at a lower temperature is the one that gains heat.

To know the quantity of energy present in a body is very important, therefore, we shall shortly see what units are to be used for measuring the quantity of heat and how one can find the amount of energy which a given body contains.

 

Lesson 3.

Part A.

affect	впливати
application	застосування
attempt	спроба
attention	увага
average	середній, середнє число
centigrade	Цельсій
certainly	звичайно
chamber	камера
channel	протока, канал
charge	навантаження, заряд
collide	зіткнутися
combustion	згорання
conduct	проводити
connect	з’єднувати, сполучати
consequently	отже, тому
constant	постійний
convert	перетворювати
dimension	розміри, обсяг
due to	завдяки
evident	очевидний
exist	існувати
expansion	розширення
expend	розширювати
fission	розщеплення
force	сила
freer	замерзати
gaseous	газоподібний
generation	покоління
grade	градус
helium	гелій
hence	віднині
inversely	обернено
linear	лінійний
liquid	рідина
matter	речовина
modern	сучасний
observe	спостерігати
obtain	одержувати
perfect	досконалий
plane	площина
plasma	плазма
possible	можливий
pressure	тиск
property	властивість
quantity	кількість
random	випадковий
relation	відношення
research	дослідження
rotate	обертати
shape	форма, обрис
simultaneously	одночасно
solid	твердий
substance	речовина, матерія
suppose	гадати, вважати
teach	вчити
universe	всесвіт
various	різний
vessel	посуд
volume	обсяг
well-known	відомий
wire	дріт, провід

 

Part B.

Plasma.

The field of physics which is connected with highly io­nised gases is known to be plasma physics. A gas compo­sed of almost equal number of positive and negative free charges, namely, positive ions and electrons is culled a plasma.

Plasma differs greatly from ordinary gases because of its being composed of charged particles. Hence, one may consider it to be the fourth state of matter.

Ionised gases are found naturally in the universe except on the surface of cold planets, such as the earth.

In recent years interest in plasma physics has grown because plasma is applied in electrical engineering and space research, as well as in the development of the ther­monuclear power generation.

As to practical applications of ionised gases, they de­pend on the fact that when ionised, the gas will conduct electricity. Such ionisation is produced rapidly in case a critical electric field is exceeded.

In addition to it plasma can be applied in lighting where collisions between atoms and electrons provide a method of converting electric energy into light.

Of no less importance is the application of plasma in the direct conversion of kinetic energy into electric ener­gy. An attempt to force a moving conductor through a magnetic field gives rise to an electric field. If suitable contacts are provided it can drive a current. Provided the conductor takes the form of a long wire wound on an ar­mature, it is a dynamo. But if a conductor is an ionised gas or flame flowing between electrodes instead of the long wire it is a magneto-hydrodynamic generator (MHD). Power should be obtained from a high tempera­ture gas by means of this generator.

In order to understand its importance let's consider an elementary MHD generator. Heated gas flows through the channel across the magnetic field lines which arc perpendicular to the plane of the drawing. A vertical induced EMF causes current to flow between the electrodes and through the load. Thus, as the gas expands through the channel, it does work on the magnetic field and produces electric power.

The primary energy source for heating the gas may be either ordinary combustion or fission. For a power station using combustion, the efficiency of the cycle is limited by the temperature at which rotating machines can operate. An MHD generator offers the advantage that energy can be obtained from the gas at temperatures above those which can be withstood by solids. The chamber walls may be cooled below the gas temperature, as is the case in a rocket. On the other hand, the MHD generator can with­stand the upper temperature range. It means from the combustion temperature to that at which the conductivity becomes too low for the interaction with the magnetic field. At this temperature there is still some heat energy in the gas and that energy is obtained due to a steam cycle.

For the case of a fission reactor, used as the primary energy source, it is possible to develop solid fuel elemen­ts. These elements can have a long life time at temperatu­res greater than those at which rotating machines can ope­rate. Thus, the upper cycle temperature can be raised by means of the MHD generator.

 

Part C.

OTHER SOURCES OF ENERGY.

People do not usually think of hydropower, or energy from mo­ving water as coming from the sun. Yet the sun does provide this energy by evaporating water, which then falls to Earth as rain and runs from high ground to low.

Modern power plants harness water power for electricity. Usually the builders of a hydroelectric power plant need to dam a stream or river. By holding water in a reservoir, the dam raises the wa­ter level behind it much higher than the level of the power plant at the bottom of the dam. This increases the gravitational po­tential energy of the water. As electricity is needed, the water is released to rush down with terrific force. The falling water strikes and turns the blades of turbines. In turn, the turbines spin the generators to make electricity.

The sun is also the source of wind energy. Wind is caused by the flow of air from areas of high pressure to areas of low pre­ssure. These high- and low-pressure areas are a result of un­even heating of Earth’s surface by the sun.

Wind was one of the first forms of energy harnessed by humans. Sailors first used it to move ships in ancient times. Later, pe­ople throughout Europe and the Middle East used windmills for pumping water and grinding grain. Some old windmills still ope­rate in places such as Netherlands and the island of Crete.

After 1973, as the price of fossil fuels rose, people became more concerned about supplies of petroleum. Interest in wind power was rekindled. Thousands of wind machines are now in use. Some power machinery directly. For instance, they may use water on a farm.

When many wind machines are grouped together in wind farms they can generate as much electricity as power plant.

 

ENERGY.

Energy in great quantities is necessary to power civilization and meet human needs. Fossil fuels, the primary energy source, exist in limited supplies. However, energy is available from a number of natural sources. Humans are developing the technolo­gy to generate and harness energy for their work using alter­nate sources,

As the 1990s opened, fossil fuels provided most of the energy consumed world-wide. Of the alternative sources available in 1991, only nuclear power had the potential to replace fossil fuels on a large scale. Yet utility companies are discouraged by the costs and the public is varied of the hazards. Supplies for hydropower are limited and solar, wind and geothermal sources need more rese­arch to make them more efficient and practical for wide-scale use. During the 1980s, governments and industry devoted less re­search and fewer resources than in the 1970s to developing al­ternative sources of energy. The reason for this lack of inte­rest goes beyond change in administration: petroleum was inex­pensive relative to most alternative sources. During an era of relatively low oil prices, insufficient industry and consumer interest existed in the use of these fuels. In a crisis situa­tion, petroleum cannot be replaced immediately.

Vehicle manufacturers must plan three to five years in advance planning and construction of a coal-fired electrical plant takes seven years; a nuclear facility twelve years; a solar plant one to five years; and a geothermal facility three, wind farms can be constructed in six months, provided that the sites, supp­liers, constructors, and funds are in place.

THE IMPORTANCE OF ENERGY.

Energy is important for a number of reasons, we depend on it to power civilization and maintain our life-style. Harnessing en­ergy from natural forces allows us a level of comfort and achie­vement beyond the dreams of our ancestors. From the design of the house you live in to the shape of your family car, the effec­tive use of energy is a key factor in shaping your world. Daily life is filled with countless marvels beyond the imagination of anyone living 300 years ago. People today take these develop­ments for granted, yet they are in danger of losing them. Vehic­les, appliances and machines all need energy to run, and most run on fuels that exist in limited quantities.

Everyone must understand the nature of thermal energy and how it interacts with matter, how it can be produced and controlled, and the risks and benefits connected with using it.

The state of the world in 10, 20, or 100 years will depend upon decisions that you and others will make about the ways in which energy will be used. Your priorities, concerns, needs, and purchases will help shape the world in which we live.

The search for energy resources and their development and use has become an all-important theme in today's world. Our attached to a ready supply of energy.

SOLAR ENERGY.

1. Most of the energy that we use on the Earth even in some converted form such as coal and oil stems from the Sun. Indeed, oil, coal and natural gas are fuels that release energy received from the Sun millions of years ago. When we use wood in a fire it is necessary to remember that the Sun supplied the energy for the growth of trees.

2. Hydroelectric energy is known to be electricity produced from the energy of falling water. This is actually stored solar energy, the water being lifted from the sea in the course of the hydrological cycle which is driven by the Sun. Hydro electric energy has several advantages over other ways of producing electricity. No fuel is required, since the energy comes from the Sun.

3. The Sun is also important to us as a laboratory in which we can study hot gases in a magnetic field. The knowledge we are gathering from the studies of the solar gas enables us to control fusion processes on the Earth. If we could build magnetic "bottles" to contain hydrogen undergoing fusion at temperatures of millions of degrees and would use the hydrogen in the oceans we should obtain unexhausted sources of energy for millions of years.

4. It is clear today that the supply of coal, oil and natural gas will soon become inadequate for our needs. It is natural that scientists began their search for new sources of energy. There is an increasing interest in obtaining energy from the Sun.

5. There are devices that give off an electrical signal when struck by sunlight. The device employed for converting solar energy into useful power is the solar cell. In the solar cell the junction consists of two different kinds of semiconductors. The cell is energized not by heat but by light. But solar cells are still expensive to use for general commercial purposes. They proved to be an ideal source of power for artificial satellites.

6. There is now considerable research centering on finding ways of conversion solar radiation into heat and electricity. Man has learned to obtain electric power directly from the Sun at present. Architects have built houses to be heated by solar radiation due to applying suitably designed roofs and using suitable construction materials, the latter tend to retain heat obtained from the Sun. Under suitable conditions solar radiation can raise the temperature of the air to 300° F.

THERMAL ENERGY.

Thermal, kinetic, nuclear, and chemical energy are all availab­le for human work. People obtain them from fuel, solar radiation, moving water, geothermal facilities or nuclear fission.

Today, however, most energy comes from burning fuels. Burning releases the chemical energy stored in the bonds between atoms and molecules of the fuels. The thermal energy released from the fuels burning is the result of a chemical reaction called oxidation. Oxi­dation is the chemical combination of oxygen with another element. The elements such as carbon, sulphur and nitrogen combined with oxy­gen to produce such oxides as carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxide, releasing thermal energy in the process. This is the reason fuels such as wood and coal lose so much mass in the burning process. Oxidation releases the energy in stored chemical bonds.

Valuable as oxidation is in providing energy for human work; its by-products affect the atmosphere, climate and the health of liv­ing organisms. Carton monoxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxi­de are all injurious to human health; oxides or sulphur and nitro­gen become acids that living and nonliving matter; and car­bon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, is instrumental in global warming. The destructive effects of oxidation, together with dwindling supp­lies of fossil fuels provide the impetus for development of al­ternative sources.

 

Передмова.

Методичні вказівки призначені для студентів другого етапу навчання механіко-енергетичного факультету спеціальності 6.090500 „Теплоенергетика”.

Матеріал складається з оригінальних текстів, які відображають комплекс основних понять, з якими стикаються студенти спеціальності „Теплоенергетика”. Методичні вказівки готують студентів до читання і розуміння оригінальної англомовної літератури за фахом.

Матеріал методичних вказівок складається з трьох уроків та текстів для додаткового читання. Кожен урок містить основний (А) і два додаткових (В і С) тексти, словник-мінімум, пояснення найскладніших для перекладу словосполучень, виразів чи окремих речень. Текст А призначений для вивчаючого, текст В – для ознайомлювального, а текст С – для переглядового читання. Також текст с при бажанні можна використовувати для аудіювання.

В методичних вказівках дається велика кількість різноманітних вправ, спрямованих на удосконалення навичок словотворення, а також повторення і закріплення граматичного і лексичного матеріалу.

Закріплення лексичних одиниць, що згруповані в словниках-мінімумах, забезпечується їх багаторазовим повторенням в текстах і вправах до уроків.

 

Lesson 1.

Part A.

accomplish	виконувати, закінчувати
add	додавати
affect	впливати
aforesaid	вищезгаданий
amount	об’єм, кількість
appliance	прилад, пристрій
assume	набирати
average	середній
capable	здатний, здібний
capacity	місткість, ємність, потужність
change	зміна
condition	умова
conservation	збереження
conversion	розмова, бесіда
create	створювати
destroy	руйнувати
difficulty	складність
disadvantage	недолік
disappear	зникати
distance	відстань
enemy	ворог
energy	енергія
example	приклад
exert	зусилля, напруження
expend	розширювати
force	сила, міць, примушувати
friction	тертя
generator	генератор
height	висота
hence	віднині, з цього часу
hold	тримати
horse-power	кінська сила
kind	сорт, різновид
kinetic	кінетичний
later	наступний, пізніший
machine	машина
measure	міра
mechanics	механіка
mention	згадувати
move	рухатися
nevertheless	як би там не було, все-таки
object	предмет, річ
perform	виконувати
phenomena	явище
physicist	фізик
potential	потенціал
power	сила, потужність
precise	точний
push	штовхати
quantity	кількість
rate	норма, ставка
relate	стосуватися, мати відношення
restrict	обмежений
science	наука
spring	пружина, стрибати
stairs	сходи
strike	бити, завдавати ударів
term	термін
transform	перетворювати
utilize	використовувати
waterfall	водоспад
weight	вага

Exercise 1. Read and translate the text.

THE SCIENTIFIC MEANING OF THE WORDS "WORK", "ENERGY" AND "POWER".

As previously mentioned, many words that we use in our everyday speech assume a more precise and often restricted meaning in the language of science. The words "work", "energy" and "power" considered in this article are quite familiar to everyone; nevertheless, their use in scientific terminology presents certain difficulties. Discuss­ing these three terms in some detail is the subject of our present article for we know of their being often misused.

The word "work" may serve as an example. Besides its being an English word in common usage, it is also a scien­tific term which has a special meaning when used in me­chanics.

When we are standing and holding a heavy weight, when we are studying or teaching at the institute – we say than we are working. Studying may he very hard. We know that it will make you tired at times; nevertheless, no physicist will ever call it work. The scientific term "work" is much more restricted. Mechanical work is per­formed only when a force moves some object through a distance.

One can perform work by lifting a box from the floor. Pushing the box along the floor against friction also means doing work. According to physical laws you cannot per­form any work scientifically speaking by pushing an auto­mobile which is standing on the road, unless it starts mov­ing. Thus, in order to do mechanical work two conditions are necessary, namely, there must be a force and it must act through a distance. Generally speaking, the greater the force and the distance moved, the greater the work performed.

Work and energy are very closely related. Indeed, one may say that the energy of a body or system is the capa­city of that system or body for doing work. Power is re­lated to both work and energy. It is the rate of performing the work in a unit of time.

While energy is the capacity for work, power is the quantity of work done in a unit of time. When a kilogram is lifted to a height of one metre, we say that a kilogram-metre of work is accomplished. The amount of the accomp­lished work does not depend on the time spent on lifting this weight.

Considering power requires considering the rate of per­forming the work. For example, if a weight is lifted to a height of one metre in one second, twice as much power will he required than in case that very weight were lifted to a height of one metre in two seconds.

If someone carried a 15-kg box up the stairs in 10 sec, the staircase being 6 m high, he would work at the ave­rage rate of 90 kgm divided by 10 sec, or 9 kgm per se­cond.

Measuring power we generally use such units as waits, kilowatts, and kilogram-metres per second. Seventy five kg.m.s. (kilogram-metres per second) or 736 W (watts) form a horse-power. A horse power is a unit for measuring the amount of work performed per second.

Discussing the term "energy", we shall follow the transformation of one form of energy into another.

 

Exercise 2. Read and translate the following words and phrases:

term, amount, object, science, average, friction, move, condition, accomplish, precise, measure, relate, restrict, perform, power, capacity, weight, as previously mentioned, quite familiar, no physicist will ever call it.., scientific term, according to.., namely, one may say, twice as much, in order to….

 

Exercise 3. Give English equivalents of the words:

кінська сила, термін, одиниця, енергія, ват, потужність, кількість, робота, піднімати, предмет, умова, кіловат, секунда, приклад, рух, тіло, відстань, обмежувати.