Chaucer Heralds a New Literature

ENGLISH LITERATURE

The literature of England is one of the highest achievements of a great nation. It should not, however, be read simply as a national expression. It is a body of significant statements about abiding human concerns. The language in which it is written has evolved over hundreds of years and is still changing. Several nations, including Canada, the United States, and Australia are indebted to England for a literary heritage.

 

Old English Literature

The beginnings of English literature appeared in the 7th or 8th century AD. After the Romans withdrew their troops from Britain in 410, there followed a long period of social unrest, war, and turbulence. The Britons were forced to defend themselves alone against Picts and Scots from Scotland. Then the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes came from the European continent. They plundered city after city. If these invaders left any literature, none of it has survived. By the middle of the 6th century the Britons had been pushed to the western borders of England, where they set up small tribal governments. When this society became established, English literature began.

In 597 Pope Gregory I sent Augustine to convert the British to Christianity. He established a Benedictine abbey at Canterbury as the seat of his diocese. This became the center of learning and scholarship of all Western Europe.

The Venerable Bede (673?-735), a monk, was the greatest Anglo-Saxon scholar. His beautifully written 'Ecclesiastical History of the English People' is a monumental account of his times.

Another monk, Alcuin (735-804), was probably the most learned man in the Europe of his time. He was a liturgical reformer and was largely responsible for the revival of Latin scripts under Charlemagne. Alfred the Great (848?-899) made contributions to this already rich literature by writing in the native tongue and encouraging scholarly translations from Latin into Old English (Anglo-Saxon).

Alfred translated some Latin texts himself into the tongue of the West Saxons; and it was under him, probably, that the 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle' was begun. This history of the chief events of each year is of prime importance to historians. Under Alfred, Bede's 'Ecclesiastical History' also was translated from the Latin, so that the people could study their past. (See also Alfred the Great.)

 

Old English Poetry

'Beowulf', the most notable example of the earliest English poetry, is an odd blend of Christianity and paganism. Old English, the language of 'Beowulf', is the source of modern English. Although Old English differed greatly from the language of today, much of the vigor and precision of modern English comes from the many Anglo-Saxon forms still used. The older language was a highly inflectional one; that is, it had many case endings for the nouns, pronouns, and adjectives and a complex system of verbs. It resembled modern German in grammar and in much of its vocabulary as well.

The story of 'Beowulf' takes place in lands other than England; but the customs and manners described were those of the Anglo-Saxon people. This epic poem describes their heroic past. It tells of Beowulf's three fierce fights--with the monster Grendel, the equally ferocious mother of Grendel, and the fiery dragon. By conquering them, Beowulf saves his people from destruction. (See also Beowulf.)

The versification of 'Beowulf' is highly stressed, with the strong beats falling upon syllables which alliterate--(that is, which repeat the same sound). These lines illustrate this forceful technique:

L onely and w aste I sthe l an dthey in h abit,

W olf-cliffs w ild and w indy h eadlands.

Much of Old English poetry, such as 'The Battle of Brunanburg' and 'The Battle of Maldon', is heroic and martial. 'The Wanderer' and 'The Sea-Farer' have a sad and pleasing lyric quality.

Only two Old English poets are known by name. Caedmon (7th century) was an unlearned cowherd (see Caedmon). According to legend, he was inspired by a vision and miraculously acquired the gift of poetic song. Unfortunately, only nine lines by this first known poet survive. The second known poet was Cynewulf (8th century). Little is known of him except that he signed his poems in a kind of cypher, or anagram, made up of ancient figures called runes (an alphabet used by early Germanic tribes preceding the use of the Roman alphabet in England). His poems, such as 'Christ', deal with religious subjects.

 

Middle English Literature

In the battle of Hastings, fought on Oct. 14, 1066, Harold II, last of the Anglo-Saxon kings, was killed (see Hastings, Battle of). William the Conqueror then assumed the kingship. After subduing vicious resistance, he established a rule that was almost entirely Norman-French. The Norman conquest greatly changed English life. All positions of power were filled by Frenchmen. Over all the old English vigor was imposed this foreign culture.

The Old English language went untaught and was spoken only by "unlettered" people. The language of the nobility and of the lawcourts was Norman-French; the language of the scholars was Latin. This situation lasted for nearly 300 years. During this period the Old English language changed. Its old case endings broke down, and the grammar became quite simple. Anglo-Saxon words were lost, and French words were added. The strong, crude iron of the Old English language was being slowly shaped into the flexible steel of present-day English.

The cult of chivalry came into being, fed by the great Crusades. The tales of King Arthur and his Round Table were a result of this movement. Education flourished; and the first universities, Oxford and Cambridge, were founded in the 12th century.

During these 300 years there was little literature in the changing English language. The few lyrics ('Sumer is icumen in', 'Alysoun', 1300?) and other works ('Ormulum', 1200?; Layamon's 'Brut', 1205?) have a small interest.

The Middle English period also marked the beginning of a native English drama, which was at first closely associated with the church. About 900 the antiphonal chant "Quem quaeritis in sepulchre, o Christocolae?" was first used preceding the Introit of the Mass. Other dramatic additions were made to the sacred offices, and soon dialogue between individual members of the choir was added in celebrations of certain feast days. Finally, miniature dramas developed. In time these little plays (or tropes), becoming more secular, were moved out doors. (See also Drama.)

The early cycles of miracle and mystery plays possibly began as celebrations of traditional religious feasts and fasts. In any case, by the end of the 14th century the observances of certain festivals, for example, Corpus Christi, regularly involved pageants. These plays were staged in larger towns, such as York, Wakefield, and Chester, on wagons which were moved from place to place in a procession, perhaps chronological, of events. (See also Miracle Play.)

In addition to mystery and miracle plays, morality plays were also popular at the end of the Middle English period. They usually personified such abstractions as Health, Death, or the Seven Deadly Sins and offered practical instruction in morality.

 

English Renaissance Poets

The three great poetic geniuses of Elizabethan times were Christopher Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, and William Shakespeare. All were typical Renaissance men, trained in the classics, fond of fine living, full of restless energy and a zest for ideas.

Writing was a social fashion of this time, a pastime enjoyed by the nobles as well as by men of lower stations. Henry Howard, earl of Surrey (1518?-47), and Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503-42) are two striking instances of a talent for poetry existing in men of affairs. Though active in England's service, in their short lives the two became familiar with French and Italian verse forms. They adapted the Italian sonnet for English use, and Surrey introduced blank verse in his translation of the 'Aeneid'.

A third nobleman with a talent for writing was Sir Philip Sidney (1554-86). He wrote a beautiful sonnet series, 'Astrophel and Stella' (1591), and produced a tremendously long and somewhat tedious novel called 'Arcadia' (1590). These men wrote only for amusement, but they also gave money and encouragement to poor, struggling writers.

 

Spenser and Marlowe

Edmund Spenser (1552?-99), also active in public service, was much more the professional man of letters than Wyatt or Sidney. His 'Shepheardes Calender' (1579) is made up of 12 poems, one for each month of the year. These poems were more charming than any England had seen for 200 years. Spenser wrote many other poems, including a sonnet series called 'Amoretti' (1595).

'The Faerie Queene' (1589-96), Spenser's masterpiece, was left unfinished; but the 6 books written, out of 12 planned, are of great length. 'The Faerie Queene' is an elaborate allegory built on the story of a 12-day feast honoring the Queen of Fairyland (Elizabeth I). Spenser worked out a poetic stanza well adapted to telling a story, a special form which is now known as the Spenserian stanza. (See also Spenser.)

Christopher Marlowe (1564-93) promised more greatness than he achieved. He died at 29, stabbed in a tavern brawl. A line from his own 'Doctor Faustus' is his best epitaph: "Cut is the branch that might have grown full straight." His plays, such as 'Tamburlaine' (1587?) and 'Doctor Faustus' (1588?), bring passion and tragedy onto the stage in lines of great force.

Thomas Kyd (1558-94) is known for his very successful play 'The Spanish Tragedy' (1587?). To a modern audience it is an overwhelming story of carnage. It is exciting drama, however. Some critics believe that Kyd also wrote a tragedy of Hamlet which became the source for Shakespeare's great play.

 

The King James Bible

One of the supreme achievements of the English Renaissance came at its close, in the King James Bible. This translation was ordered by James I and made by 47 scholars working in cooperation. It was published in 1611 and is known as the Authorized Version. It is rightly regarded as the most influential book in the history of English civilization.

There had been translations of the Bible before 1611. William Tyndale (1492?-1536) first translated the New Testament from the Greek into English (1525). Miles Coverdale (1488?-1569) made the first complete translation of the Bible into English using Tyndale's version (1535). There had also been other translations; but the King James Version combined homely, dignified phrases into a style of great richness and loveliness. It has been a model of writing for generations of English-speaking people.

 

Th-Century Prose

The 17th century was an age of prose. Interest in scientific detail and leisurely observation marked the prose of the time. This new writing style emphasized clarity, directness, and economy of expression. It first appeared just before 1600 in the 'Essays' of Bacon (see Bacon, Francis). The physician Sir Thomas Browne (1605-82) wrote with dry precision in 'Pseudodoxia Epidemica' (1646), as he amusingly and gravely discussed such beliefs as "an elephant hath no joints" or "hares are both male and female."

Robert Burton (1577-1640) was one of the "originals" of his age. His 'Anatomy of Melancholy' (1621) is important not only as a document of 17th-century thought but also as one of the first attempts to explain human behavior in materialistic terms. This rambling and much-revised book is a storehouse of medical lore and fact, moral observation, and anecdote. In recent times scholars have recognized that Burton's observations were deeply perceptive.

Jeremy Taylor (1613-67), a brilliant student and preacher, wrote 'Holy Living' (1650) and 'Holy Dying' (1651). He was one of the great prose writers of the period. Izaak Walton (1593-1683) is famous for his biographies and 'The Compleat Angler' (1653). The former began when he was asked to write a brief life of John Donne. 'The Compleat Angler' delights readers whether they are fishermen themselves or are only slightly interested in what Walton called the "contemplative man's recreation."

 

Bunyan and Pepys

The prose masterpiece of the century was 'The Pilgrim's Progress' (1678). John Bunyan (1628-88) had studied the King James Version of the Bible; and with it as a style model, he wrote a study of a Christian's journey through life and the difficulties that beset him as he tries to reach the Celestial City. 'The Pilgrim's Progress' was, for more than 200 years, second only to the Bible in popularity. Even today it is much read for its vigorous scenes of English country life. (See also Bunyan, John.)

The religious zeal of Bunyan contrasts with the cavalier spirit of Samuel Pepys (1633-1703). As secretary to the Admiralty, Pepys was a career man. He loved London and its life, and he recorded his daily experiences in shorthand and cipher in a diary (published in 1825). It is a splendid book of gossip, a record both of trivial matters, such as the behavior at court, and of major events, such as the Great Plague (1664-65), and the Great Fire (1666). Pepys's 'Diary' is a window on the last part of the 17th century in England. (See also Pepys.)

 

Milton--Puritan Poet

The sober, scientific spirit of the 17th century did not destroy poetry. The great poet of the first half of the century was John Milton (1608-74), a Puritan who served Cromwell as Latin secretary. He first wrote some short poems, the best known being 'L'Allegro' (1645) and 'Il Penseroso' (1645). The first tells of the day's activities of a cheerful man; and the second, of the night's activities of a thoughtful scholar. A music-play (or masque) known as 'Comus' was produced in 1634, with music composed by Henry Lawes. Milton's greatest early poem is 'Lycidas' (1638), a lament on the death of a college friend.

Milton's service under Cromwell brought on blindness. This did not stop his writing poetry. He dictated his masterpiece, 'Paradise Lost' (1667), to his daughters. This is an epic poem telling of the fall of the angels and of the creation of Adam and Eve and their temptation by Satan in the Garden of Eden ("Of Man's first disobedience, and the fruit/ Of that forbidden tree..."). It is written in blank verse of great solemnity.

'Paradise Regained' (1671) is Milton's sequel to 'Paradise Lost'. He considered the later work his masterpiece, but most readers have not agreed with him. Milton's last work is a blank-verse tragedy in the ancient Greek manner. It deals with the story of Samson and Delilah. 'Samson Agonistes' (1671) is in many ways Milton's allegorical description of himself as a Samson bound in chains by his enemies, the followers of King Charles II. (See also Milton.)

 

Addison, Steele, and Defoe

The modern essay began in two periodicals, The Tatler (1709-11), founded by Sir Richard Steele (1672-1729), and The Spectator (1711-12), founded by Steele and Joseph Addison (1672-1719). The kindly and witty essays by these men appealed to the middle class in the coffeehouses rather than to the nobility in their palaces. The aim of The Spectator, Addison said, was "...to enliven morality with wit, and to temper wit with morality." Steele and Addison's essays are still models of clear, informal writing. (See also Addison; Steele.)

Most people think of Daniel Defoe (1661?-1731) only as the author of 'Robinson Crusoe' (1719); but when Defoe wrote that novel, he had already lived a life full enough for three ordinary mortals. Defoe was first of all a journalist, with an eye for a news story. Single-handedly he produced a newspaper, The Review (1704-13), which was an important ancestor of modern newspapers. The list of Defoe's writings runs to more than 400 titles. In all of them, articles and books, is the kind of writing that Defoe recommended to others--a "plain and homely style." Even the great novels of his last years, 'Moll Flanders' (1722) and 'Robinson Crusoe', read like a modern reporter's account of events. (See also Defoe.)

 

Satire in Pope's Poetry

The genius of Alexander Pope (1688-1744) lay in satirical poetry. He said that he wanted to "shoot folly as it flies,/ And catch the manners living as they rise." 'The Dunciad' (1728) lists the stupid writers and men of England by name as dunces. These "dunces" proceeded to attack Pope in kind.

Pope excelled in his ability to coin unforgettable phrases. Such lines as "fools rush in where angels fear to tread" or "damn with faint praise" illustrate why Pope is the most quoted poet in English literature except for Shakespeare.

One of his lighter, though still satirical, poems is 'The Rape of the Lock' (1712). It mockingly describes a furious fight between two families when a young man snips off a lock of the beautiful Belinda's hair. Pope wrote in heroic couplets, a technique in which he has been unsurpassed. In thought and form he carried 18th-century reason and order to its highest peak. (See also Pope, Alexander.)

 

New Voices in Poetry

James Thomson (1700-48) was another major poet of the period. In his simplicity and love of nature he foreshadowed Romanticism. Edward Young (1683-1765) wrote 'The Complaint: or, Night Thoughts on Life, Death, and Immortality' (1742-45), which put in practice his ideas about the personal quality of poetry. Robert Blair (1699-1746) wrote one important poem, 'The Grave' (1743), which advanced the "graveyard school" of poetry. William Collins (1721-59) was not a popular success in his lifetime, but his 'Ode on the Popular Superstitions of the Highlands of Scotland' (published posthumously, in 1788) clearly marked a turn to the wild and irregular as proper subjects for poetry.

Thomas Gray (1716-71) was probably the most typical man of letters of the period. He was a scholar of ancient languages, a letter writer, and a critic as well as a poet. His 'Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard' (1751) is a collection of 18th-century commonplaces expressing concern for lowly folk.

George Crabbe (1754-1832) was the last poet of the century who used the couplet in didactic poetry. His political and social satire 'The Village' (1783) is a realistic appraisal of country life in his times. William Cowper (1731-1800) exemplifies the strange decay of the spirit in the 18th century. He was given to extreme, morbid sensibilities. 'The Task' (1785) is a falsely cheerful poem of a man who feels himself to be condemned. (See also Cowper.)

 

Start of the Modern Novel

The 20th century can be grateful to the 18th for developing the novel (see Novel). Samuel Richardson (1689-1761) wrote the first modern novel--that is, one with a fairly well-planned plot, with suspense and climax, and with some attempt to understand the minds and hearts of the characters. This important novel, 'Pamela' (1740), is made up of letters from Pamela Andrews. She tells of her unhappy attempts to get a husband, but the book ends happily.

Henry Fielding (1707-54) was amused by 'Pamela' and parodied it in 'Joseph Andrews' (1742), which purports to be the story of Pamela's brother. Seven years later he wrote 'Tom Jones' (1749), one of the greatest novels in English literature. It tells the story of a young foundling who is driven from his adopted home, wanders to London, and eventually, for all his suffering, wins his lady. The picture of English life, both in the country and in the city, is brilliantly drawn. The humor of the book is delightful.

The first novel by Tobias Smollett (1721-71) was 'Roderick Random' (1748). Although it is a striking collection of adventures, it lacks the good plot of 'Tom Jones'. Smollett's best work is 'Humphry Clinker' (1771). It tells, by means of letters, the story of a trip by the Bramble family across England, from Bath to London, and up into Scotland. The eccentric characters have many comic experiences.

Laurence Sterne (1713-68) wrote 'A Sentimental Journey' (1768) partly in answer to a travel book written in ill temper by Smollett. Sterne's greatest book is 'Tristram Shandy' (1760-67), a topsy-turvy collection of episodes with little organization but a wealth of 18th-century humor.

 

Johnson and His Circle

If the 18th century made much of elegance and good manners, it also made much of honesty and common sense. These useful virtues were personified by Dr. Samuel Johnson (1709-84), the leading literary figure of the century.

He wrote some sensible but uninspired poetry ('The Vanity of Human Wishes', 1749). His novel, 'Rasselas' (1759), is equally sensible and equally dull. His masterpiece is 'A Dictionary of the English Language' (1755). Johnson's common sense is shown in the clear definitions of words. He made some mistakes, however. A woman asked him why he defined "pastern" as "the knee of a horse." Johnson answered, "Ignorance, Madam, pure ignorance."

Johnson is immortal not only for what he wrote but also for his forceful personality and his wonderful conversation. This has been recorded by James Boswell (1740-95) in 'The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D.' (1791), the greatest of English biographies. Boswell had a keen eye for significant detail and a proper reverence for his subject. He noted all of Johnson's peculiarities--his rolling walk, his twitching face, his horrible table manners, his rudeness to stupid people--but he also saw his subject's sturdy common sense and his honesty. (See also Boswell; Johnson, Samuel.)

Johnson and others organized the Literary Club in 1764. The club gathered together the most celebrated artists of the time. The great orator Edmund Burke (1729-97) and the great historian Edward Gibbon (1737-94) were members. Another member was Oliver Goldsmith (1728-74). He wrote one of the best plays ('She Stoops to Conquer', 1773), one of the best poems ('The Deserted Village', 1770), and one of the best novels ('The Vicar of Wakefield', 1766) of the latter half of the 18th century. Johnson said of his versatile friend: "[He] touched nothing that he did not adorn." (See also Goldsmith.)

Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1751-1816), orator and political figure, was also a writer of comedies of manners which lampooned social affectations and pretentiousness. His masterpiece, 'The School for Scandal' (1777), features malicious gossips with such revealing names as Sir Benjamin Backbite, Lady Sneerwell, and Mrs. Candour.

For another of his clever plays, 'The Rivals' (1775), Sheridan invented the unforgettable Mrs. Malaprop, whose name remains to this day the designation for a person who misuses words. In one memorable speech she says, "if I reprehend anything in this world, it is the use of my oracular tongue and a nice derangement of epitaphs."

 

Pre-Romantic Writers

Before the Romantic movement burst into full expression there were beginners, or experimenters. Some of them are great names in English literature. Robert Burns (1759-96), a Scot whose love of nature and of freedom has seldom been surpassed, scorned the false pretensions of wealth and birth ("A man's a man for a' that."). His nature lyrics are tenderly beautiful ('To a Mountain Daisy'); his sentimental songs are sung wherever young or old folks gather ('Auld Lang Syne', 'Flow Gently Sweet Afton'). His rich humor can still be felt in 'Tam o' Shanter', 'To a Louse', and 'The Cotter's Saturday Night'. (See also Burns.)

Cowper had cried out against the inhumanity of slavery and political oppression. William Godwin (1756-1836) and his wife, Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin (1759-97), were also intense social critics. Mary Godwin's 'A Vindication of the Rights of Woman' (1792) was one of the first feminist books in all literature. Godwin's 'An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice' (1793) had a great influence on the Romantic poets Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Shelley.

James Macpherson (1736-96), a Scotsman, composed an elaborate epic poem which, he claimed, he had translated from the work of the ancient Gaelic bard called Ossian. Thomas Percy (1729-1811) collected old English songs and ballads. His 'Reliques of Ancient English Poetry' (1765) is the best source for the ballads of medieval England.

Another group of forerunners of Romanticism included the writers of stories of terror and imagination --the Gothic school of "spine chillers." Representative novels are 'The Castle of Otranto' (1764), by Horace Walpole (1717-97); 'The Mysteries of Udolpho' (1794), by Ann Radcliffe (1764-1823); and 'The Monk' (1796), by Matthew Gregory Lewis (1775-1818). All these novels are filled with the machinery of sensationalism--unreal characters, supernatural events, and overripe imagination. These qualities reached a fever pitch in 'Frankenstein' (1818), by Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley (1797-1851).

 

The Younger Romanticists

By 1812 the older generation of Romanticists had grown conservative. They no longer supported radical causes or championed the oppressed. The younger Romantic writers, however, quickly and noisily took up the cry for liberty and justice. George Gordon Byron (1788-1824) was an outspoken critic of the evils of his time. He hoped for human perfection, but his recognition of man's faults led him frequently to despair and disillusionment ('Manfred', 1817; 'Cain', 1821). Much of his work is satire, bitterly contemptuous of human foibles ('Don Juan', 1819-24). His narrative poems ('The Corsair', 1814; 'Mazeppa', 1819), about wild and impetuous persons, brought him success. He was a skilled versifier with a remarkable ear for rhythms. Byron influenced the youth of his day more than any other Romanticist. "Byronism" was a mood adopted by thousands of young men. (See also Byron.)

Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822) was the black sheep of a well-to-do, conservative family. Sonnets, songs, and poetic dramas flowed from his pen in the last four years of his life. Many of these works are profound and meditative ('Prometheus Unbound', 1820). Others are exquisitely lyrical and beautiful ('The Cloud', 'To a Skylark', 'Ode to the West Wind'). 'Adonais' (1821), his tribute to Keats, ranks among the greatest elegies. (See also Shelley).

John Keats (1795-1821) was a greater poet than either Byron or Shelley (see Keats). He believed that true happiness was to be found in art and natural beauty ('Ode on a Grecian Urn', 1819; 'Ode to a Nightingale', 1819). His verses are lively testimony to the truth of his words in 'Endymion' (1818):

A thing of beauty is a joy forever:
Its loveliness increases; it will never
Pass into nothingness;

Other Romanticists that deserve mention are Leigh Hunt (1784-1859), whose 'Abou Ben Adhem' continues to be a favorite; Thomas Moore (1779-1852), whose 'Believe Me, If All Those Endearing Young Charms' is still a favorite of vocal groups; and Thomas De Quincey (1785-1859), known best for his 'Confessions of an English Opium Eater' (1822). De Quincey, however, ought to be better known for his useful distinction between the "literature of knowledge" and the "literature of power."

 

Major Victorian Poets

Poets shifted from the extremely personal expression (or subjectivism) of the Romantic writers to an objective surveying of the problems of human life. The poems of Tennyson, Browning, and Arnold especially reflect this change. Much Victorian poetry was put to the service of society.

Alfred Tennyson (1809-92) attempted to give direction to his readers. 'Idylls of the King' (1859) is a disguised study of current ethical and social conditions. 'Locksley Hall' (1842), 'In Memoriam' (1850), and 'Maud' (1855) deal with conflicting scientific and social ideas. Much of Tennyson's poetry, however, can be read without worrying about such problems. His narrative skill makes many of his poems interesting just as stories. For example, each of the Arthurian tales in 'Idylls of the King' brings the reader a wealth of beauty and experience. 'The Lady of Shalott' and 'The Death of Oenone' are pleasing tales to young readers. (See also Tennyson.)

For those who have seen Rudolph Besier's modern play 'The Barretts of Wimpole Street', Elizabeth and Robert Browning need no introduction. Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806-61) wrote the most exquisite love poems of her time in 'Sonnets from the Portuguese' (1850). These lyrics were written secretly while she was being courted by Robert Browning. (See also Browning, Elizabeth Barrett.)

Browning (1812-89) is best remembered for his dramatic monologues. 'My Last Duchess' (1842), 'Fra Lippo Lippi' (1855), and 'Andrea del Sarto' (1855) are excellent examples. The stirring rhythm of 'How They Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix' (1845) and the simple wonder of 'The Pied Piper of Hamelin' (1842) endear Browning to readers. His expressions of personal faith have inspired thousands of readers ('Epilogue to Asolando', 1889; 'Rabbi Ben Ezra', 1864; 'Prospice', 1864). The poetic drama 'Pippa Passes' (1841) is one of his finest efforts. (See also Browning, Robert.)

The poetry of Matthew Arnold (1822-88) is marked by an intense seriousness and classic restraint. 'Sohrab and Rustum' (1853) is a fine blank-verse narrative. His elegiac poems on the death of his father, Dr. Thomas Arnold ('Rugby Chapel', 1867), and of his friend Arthur Hugh Clough ('Thyrsis', 1867) are profound and moving. His interest in the problem of making Englishmen aware of higher values of life caused him to quit writing poetry and turn to critical prose. As a critic, he drove his ideas home with clarity and force. (See also Arnold, Matthew.)

Arnold's somber and disillusioned poem 'Empedocles on Etna' (1852) was characteristic of the poetry dealing with the conflict between religion and science. A much more popular poem on the same theme was the free translation of the 'Rubбiyбt of Omar Khayyбm' (1859), by Edward Fitzgerald (1809-83). The poem was originally written by Omar, a Persian astronomer. Fitzgerald claimed that the only course of action left to the man whose religious ideals had been destroyed by science was self-indulgence.

 

Victorian Novelists

The English novel came of age in the Victorian period. There had been a decline in novel writing at the beginning of the century, partly because fiction had turned to horror and crude emotionalism and partly because of religious and moral objections to the reading of novels.

Even Sir Walter Scott, at first, considered the craft of the novelist degrading and kept his authorship a secret. In the Victorian period, however, these attitudes toward the novel were to change.

With the rise of the popular magazine, authors began to experiment with serialized fiction. Soon they were writing novels. Such was the beginning of Dickens' 'Sketches by Boz' (1836) and of Thackeray's 'The Yellowplush Correspondence' (1837-38).

Charles Dickens (1812-70) became a master of local color, as in 'The Pickwick Papers' (1836-37). Few of his novels have convincing plots, but in characterization and in the creation of moods he was outstanding. By 1850 Dickens had become England's best-loved novelist. (See also Dickens.)

The talents of William Makepeace Thackeray (1811-63) produced a different type of novel. He was not a reformer, as Dickens was, and he was not moved to tearful sentiments by the world's unfortunates. Instead, he attempted to see the whole of life, detached and critically. He disliked sham, hypocrisy, stupidity, false optimism, and self-seeking. The result was satire on manners. Literature would be the poorer without 'Vanity Fair' (1847-48) and its heroine, Becky Sharp. (See also Thackeray.)

The novels of the Brontл sisters (Charlotte, 1816-55; Emily, 1818-48; Anne, 1820-49) have very little to do with the condition of society or the world in general. Charlotte's 'Jane Eyre' and Emily's 'Wuthering Heights' (both 1847), especially, are powerful and intensely personal stories of the private lives of characters isolated from the rest of the world. (See also Brontл Family.)

Later English novelists turned to the logical plot and the concept of a central theme. Anthony Trollope (1815-82) dealt with middle- and upper-class people interestingly, naturally, and wittily ('Orley Farm' 1862). George Eliot (1819-80) was one of England's greatest women novelists. In 'Silas Marner' (1861) and 'Middlemarch' (1871-72) she used the novel to interpret life. (See also Trollope; Eliot, George.)

Wilkie Collins (1824-89) was one of the earliest writers to build a novel wholly around an ingenious plot--the formula that is used in the modern mystery story. 'The Moonstone' (1868) is his best.

Birth of the Psychological Novel As biology and psychology advanced, it became clear that human beings could no longer be shown simply as heroes and villains. The study of human character demanded the examination of motives and causes rather than the making of moral judgments. To find the cause of action meant probing into the secrets of individual psychology. George Meredith (1828-1909) was one of the first to apply psychological methods to the analysis of his characters. For the average reader the brilliance of such novels as 'The Ordeal of Richard Feverel' (1859) and 'The Egoist' (1879) is obscured by the absence of plot and the subtleties of the language. Meredith was also a poet of merit, and his essay on comedy and the comic spirit is a masterly interpretation of the function of comedy in literature. Thomas Hardy (1840-1928) brought to fiction a philosophical attitude that resulted from the new science. He believed that the more science studies the universe the less evidence is found for an intelligent guiding force behind it. If there is just chance--meaningless blind force--in the universe, what hope is there for mankind? In a series of great novels, from 'The Return of the Native' (1878) to 'Jude the Obscure' (1895), Hardy sought to show how futile and senseless is man's struggle against the forces of natural environment, social convention, and biological heritage. (See also Hardy.) Samuel Butler (1835-1902) entered into the scientific controversies of his day. Holding that evolution is the result of the creative will rather than of chance selection, Butler wrote a novel about the relations of parents to children--'The Way of All Flesh' (1903). The point of the story, made with irony, is that the family restrains the free development of the child. Charles Reade (1814-84) was, like Dickens, an ardent critic of the social abuses of his day. His most famous novel, 'The Cloister and the Hearth' (1861), however, is a historical romance with a 15th-century setting. Filled with exciting incidents, intrigue, and witchcraft, it is based on the birth and boyhood of the Dutch scholar Erasmus. George Gissing (1857-1903) was greatly influenced by Dickens. His hatred of the degrading effects of poverty is reflected in many of his novels. Gissing's most successful book was 'The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft' (1903), the imaginary journal of a retired writer who lives in happy solitude in the country amid his beloved books (as Gissing always wished that he could do).

 

 

Romance and Adventure

Not all fiction of the late 19th century falls into the intellectual or scientific classification. Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-94) wrote stories in a light mood. His novels of adventure are exciting and delightful: 'Treasure Island' (1883), 'Kidnapped' (1886), 'The Master of Ballantrae' (1889). Stevenson also wrote for adults. 'David Balfour' (1893) and 'The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde' (1886) are quite suited to adult tastes. As a short-story writer Stevenson ranks high. In light verse and in the informal essay Stevenson was unusually successful. (See also Stevenson, Robert Louis.)

One of England's most popular writers was Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936). He glamorized the foreign service and satirized the English military and administrative classes in India. He stirred the emotions of the empire lovers. Kipling also wrote delightful children's tales. He was, however, neither a cheap versifier nor a vulgar imperialist. Whoever has not read 'Barrack Room Ballads' (1892), 'Soldiers Three' 1888), 'The Jungle Books' (1894, 1895), and 'Captains Courageous' (1897) has a treat in store for him. (See also Kipling.)

Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson) (1832-98) belongs in a category by himself. 'Alice's Adventures in Wonderland' (1865) combines fantasy and satire in an inimitable way to the immense satisfaction of old and young. (See also Carroll, Lewis.)

 

Th-Century Drama

Drama did not flourish early in the 19th century. Romantic poetry had its dramatic phases, and Shelley and Byron both wrote verse dramas. These were closet dramas, intended for reading rather than for staging. Several of Tennyson's plays were produced. The stage, however, was primarily interested in low melodrama and sentimental farce-comedy. Musical comedy achieved respectability when librettist William Gilbert (1836-1911) teamed up with composer Arthur Sullivan (1842-1900) in 'Trial by Jury' (1875). Many successful collaborations by these two followed. (See also Gilbert and Sullivan.)

As was the case among readers of fiction, some theatergoers matured. They were ready for satire, for serious treatment of social problems, and for drama that was well constructed. From the Continent came realistic, intellectual, and socially significant works.

The first English dramatists to attempt the "new drama" were Henry Arthur Jones (1851-1929) and Sir Arthur Wing Pinero (1855-1934). Neither, however, could compare in wit and brilliance with two young contemporaries--Wilde and Shaw. Oscar Wilde (1854-1900), also a poet and novelist, wrote several fine plays. His 'Importance of Being Earnest' (1895) is brittle in its humor and clever in its dialogue and is probably the best of his dramas.

The plays of George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950) read even better than they act. They are important for their prefaces, sizzling attacks on Victorian prejudices and attitudes. Shaw began to write drama as a protest against existing conditions--slums, sex hypocrisy, censorship, war.

Because his plays were not well received (often they were not even allowed to be presented), Shaw wrote their now-famous prefaces. Not until after 1900 did the Shavian wit achieve acceptance on the stage. Controversial ideas and Shaw productions came to be synonymous. Shaw had the longest career of any writer who ever lived. He began in the Victorian Age and wrote until 1950. (See also Shaw.)

 

Essayists and Historians

There are other great names in Victorian literature, chiefly in criticism and history. Thomas Babington Macaulay (1800-59) is known for his 'History of England' (1848-61). Although it is often inaccurate, it represented a new concept of historical writing: history must be detailed, vivid, and pictorial. (See also Macaulay.)

Social, religious, and educational criticism was the field of John Henry Cardinal Newman (1801-90). His essays on liberal education are especially important, and his 'Apologia pro Vita Sua' (1864) is a fine autobiography. (See also Newman, Cardinal.)

John Stuart Mill (1806-73) dealt with political and economic problems. His essay 'On Liberty' (1859) was the most important discussion of that subject since Milton's time. (See also Mill.)

Of those who wrote about aesthetic matters, Ruskin and Pater are best remembered. John Ruskin (1819-1900) made his first bid for fame in 'Modern Painters' (1843-60). He studied architecture and wrote 'The Seven Lamps of Architecture' (1849). Ruskin's ideas on art were at odds with social conditions. He became a reformer, devoting his writing to social and economic problems. (See also Ruskin.)

Walter Pater (1839-94), in 'Marius the Epicurean' (1885), developed a theory of beauty which ignored the social situation. It held that art could have no ethical content, that it must be a matter of personal ecstasy.

 

Modern English Literature

The growth of science and technology in the 19th century had held forth the promise of a new and richer life. It became clear, however, that what man did with his discoveries and his newly found mechanical power would depend upon his ability to master himself. With new inventions upsetting old ways, it became increasingly difficult to find order or pattern in life. People began to talk of the "machine age" and to ask whether it was wholly good. Could man trust science to bring about a better life?

Other developments began to influence man's thought. Psychologists explored the mind and advanced varied and conflicting theories about it. Human behavior was no longer easily explainable. The new sciences of anthropology and sociology contributed to the upheaval of ideas. Religious controls and social conventions again were challenged. Naturally, there were changes in literary taste and forms. Old values were replaced by new values or were lost. Literature became pessimistic and experimental.

 

Early 20th-Century Prose

Before 1914 the post-Victorian writers were in the unhappy position of looking back at a well-marked literary road and looking ahead at a pathless jungle. They had to grapple with new forces--sociological, psychological, and scientific--because these forces were a part of their lives. They were writers in transition.

John Galsworthy (1867-1933) turned to the social life of an upper-class English family in 'The Forsyte Saga' (1922), a series of novels which records the changing values of such a family. Galsworthy also wrote serious social plays, including 'Strife' (1909) and 'Justice' (1910). (See also Galsworthy.)

The first works of H.G. Wells (1866-1946) were science fiction--'The Time Machine' (1895), 'The Island of Dr. Moreau' (1896), 'The War of the Worlds' (1898). Then he turned to social and political subjects. Of his many books criticizing the middle-class life of England, 'Tono-Bungay' (1909), a satire on commercial advertising, is probably the most entertaining. (See also Wells.)

Arnold Bennett (1867-1931) was a literary experimenter who was drawn chiefly to realism, the slice-of-life approach to fiction. 'The Old Wives' Tale' (1908) and 'Clayhanger' (1910) are novels of people in drab surroundings. (See also Bennett.)

Out of his years as a merchant-marine officer Joseph Conrad (1857-1924) wrote such remarkable novels as 'The Nigger of the Narcissus' (1898) and 'Lord Jim' (1900). The scenes, chiefly of a wild and turbulent sea, are exotic and exciting. The characters are strange people beset by obsessions of cowardice, egoism, or vanity. (See also Conrad.)

A master of the traditional plot was E.M. Forster (1879-1970). His characters are ordinary persons out of middle-class life. They are moved by accident because they do not know how to choose a course of action. 'A Passage to India' (1924) is a splendid novel of Englishmen in India.

The naturalist W.H. Hudson (1841-1922) will long be remembered for 'Green Mansions' (1904), a fanciful romance of the South American jungles. Hudson's skill as a nature writer, however, surpassed his skill as a novelist. John Buchan (1875-1940), who served as governor-general of Canada, wrote exciting novels of adventure and mystery. 'The Thirty-Nine Steps' (1915) is perhaps his best-known work.

 

Early 20th-Century Poetry

The poetry of the Edwardian and Georgian periods (Edward VII, 1901-10; George V, 1910-36) showed many new and unusual characteristics. Robert Bridges (1844-1930) experimented in verse forms. He employed the usual subjects of the poet but brought strange rhythms and unusual music to his verse. The poet A.E. Housman (1859-1936) was an anti-Victorian who echoed the pessimism found in Hardy. In his 'Shropshire Lad' (1896) nature is unkind; people struggle without hope or purpose; boys and girls laugh, love, and are untrue (see Housman).

John Masefield (1878-1967) stressed the bold and the violent in his poetry. 'The Everlasting Mercy' (1911), containing a Homeric prizefight, and 'Dauber' (1912), the story of a painter among unsympathetic seamen, will please the most masculine mind. His descriptions of sea and land and of brutal people are powerfully realistic. (See also Masefield.)

A different sort of poet from his contemporaries was Walter de la Mare (1873-1956). The wonder and fancy of the child's world and the fantasy of the world of the supernatural were his to command. 'Peacock Pie' (1913) is representative of his verse. As a novelist and teller of tales, De la Mare was a supernaturalist who believed in the reality of evil as well as of good. (See also De la Mare.)

Sir James M. Barrie (1860-1937) was probably the greatest master of the romantic-fantasy drama of the period. Beginning with 'The Admirable Crichton' (1903), in which a butler becomes a Swiss Family Robinson character, and continuing through 'Peter Pan' (1904) and 'Dear Brutus' (1917), Barrie wrote of life as seen by children, for an audience that was tired of adult viewpoints. (See also Barrie.)

Intensely nationalistic, the Irish writers were looking to their own country for literary inspiration. William Butler Yeats (1865-1939), John Millington Synge (1871-1909), and Lord Dunsany (1878-1957) worked vigorously for the Irish cause. All were dramatists and all helped found the famous Abbey Theatre. (See also Yeats; Irish Literature.)

 

Impact of World War I

World War I cut forever the ties with the past. It brought discontent and disillusionment. Men were plunged into gloom at the knowledge that "progress" had not saved the world from war.

World War I left its record in literature. Rupert Brooke (1887-1915), who died during the war, has been idealized for what is actually a rather thin performance in poetry. Wilfred Owen (1893-1918), also a war casualty, was far more realistic about the heroism and idealism of the soldier. Siegfried Sassoon (1886-1967) and Edmund Blunden (1896-1974), both survivors of the carnage, left violent accounts of the horrors and terror of war.

In fiction there was a shift from novels of the human comedy to novels of characters. Fiction ceased to be concerned with a plot or a forward-moving narrative. Instead it followed the twisted, contorted development of a single character or a group of related characters.

Of these writers William Somerset Maugham (1874-1965) achieved the greatest popular success. 'Of Human Bondage' (1915) portrays a character who drifts. 'The Moon and Sixpence' (1919), based on the life of the artist Paul Gauguin, continues the examination of the character without roots. 'Cakes and Ale' (1930) shows how the real self is lost between the two masks--public and private--that every person wears. (See also Maugham, W. Somerset.)

The writer D.H. Lawrence (1885-1930) was a man trying to find himself, trying to be reborn. This tragic, heroic search is reflected in his curious novels about the secret sources of human life. The records of his search and torment are his great novels 'Sons and Lovers' (1913) and 'Women in Love' (1920). (See also Lawrence, D.H.)

James Joyce (1882-1941) was searching for the secret places in which the real self is hidden. He believed he had found the way to it through human vocal language. To him language was the means by which the inner, or subconscious, feelings gained expression. Civilized man tries to control his spoken language; natural man would let his language flow freely. If one could capture this free flow of language in writing, he would have the secret of man's nature. Thus was born stream of consciousness, a technique that has been employed in much contemporary literature. 'Ulysses' (1922), a vast, rambling account of 24 hours in the lives of Leopold Bloom and Stephen Dedalus, was banned in some countries but has nevertheless greatly influenced modern fiction. (See also Joyce, James.)

Joyce's stream-of-consciousness technique was refined by Virginia Woolf (1882-1941). For her, reality, or consciousness, is a stream. Life, for both reader and characters, is immersion in the flow of that stream. 'Mrs. Dalloway' (1925) and 'To the Lighthouse' (1927) are among her best works (see Woolf, Virginia). Katherine Mansfield (1888-1923), Dorothy M. Richardson (1882-1957), and Elizabeth Bowen (1899-1973) also wrote fiction of this type (see Mansfield, Katherine).

While these writers were concerned with the realities of the mind, Aldous Huxley (1894-1963) worked with the external world. He found it false, brutal, and inhuman. In 'Point Counter Point' (1928), 'Brave New World' (1932), and 'After Many a Summer Dies the Swan' (1939), his cynicism reached its peak.

 

ENGLISH LITERATURE

The literature of England is one of the highest achievements of a great nation. It should not, however, be read simply as a national expression. It is a body of significant statements about abiding human concerns. The language in which it is written has evolved over hundreds of years and is still changing. Several nations, including Canada, the United States, and Australia are indebted to England for a literary heritage.

 

Old English Literature

The beginnings of English literature appeared in the 7th or 8th century AD. After the Romans withdrew their troops from Britain in 410, there followed a long period of social unrest, war, and turbulence. The Britons were forced to defend themselves alone against Picts and Scots from Scotland. Then the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes came from the European continent. They plundered city after city. If these invaders left any literature, none of it has survived. By the middle of the 6th century the Britons had been pushed to the western borders of England, where they set up small tribal governments. When this society became established, English literature began.

In 597 Pope Gregory I sent Augustine to convert the British to Christianity. He established a Benedictine abbey at Canterbury as the seat of his diocese. This became the center of learning and scholarship of all Western Europe.

The Venerable Bede (673?-735), a monk, was the greatest Anglo-Saxon scholar. His beautifully written 'Ecclesiastical History of the English People' is a monumental account of his times.

Another monk, Alcuin (735-804), was probably the most learned man in the Europe of his time. He was a liturgical reformer and was largely responsible for the revival of Latin scripts under Charlemagne. Alfred the Great (848?-899) made contributions to this already rich literature by writing in the native tongue and encouraging scholarly translations from Latin into Old English (Anglo-Saxon).

Alfred translated some Latin texts himself into the tongue of the West Saxons; and it was under him, probably, that the 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle' was begun. This history of the chief events of each year is of prime importance to historians. Under Alfred, Bede's 'Ecclesiastical History' also was translated from the Latin, so that the people could study their past. (See also Alfred the Great.)

 

Old English Poetry

'Beowulf', the most notable example of the earliest English poetry, is an odd blend of Christianity and paganism. Old English, the language of 'Beowulf', is the source of modern English. Although Old English differed greatly from the language of today, much of the vigor and precision of modern English comes from the many Anglo-Saxon forms still used. The older language was a highly inflectional one; that is, it had many case endings for the nouns, pronouns, and adjectives and a complex system of verbs. It resembled modern German in grammar and in much of its vocabulary as well.

The story of 'Beowulf' takes place in lands other than England; but the customs and manners described were those of the Anglo-Saxon people. This epic poem describes their heroic past. It tells of Beowulf's three fierce fights--with the monster Grendel, the equally ferocious mother of Grendel, and the fiery dragon. By conquering them, Beowulf saves his people from destruction. (See also Beowulf.)

The versification of 'Beowulf' is highly stressed, with the strong beats falling upon syllables which alliterate--(that is, which repeat the same sound). These lines illustrate this forceful technique:

L onely and w aste I sthe l an dthey in h abit,

W olf-cliffs w ild and w indy h eadlands.

Much of Old English poetry, such as 'The Battle of Brunanburg' and 'The Battle of Maldon', is heroic and martial. 'The Wanderer' and 'The Sea-Farer' have a sad and pleasing lyric quality.

Only two Old English poets are known by name. Caedmon (7th century) was an unlearned cowherd (see Caedmon). According to legend, he was inspired by a vision and miraculously acquired the gift of poetic song. Unfortunately, only nine lines by this first known poet survive. The second known poet was Cynewulf (8th century). Little is known of him except that he signed his poems in a kind of cypher, or anagram, made up of ancient figures called runes (an alphabet used by early Germanic tribes preceding the use of the Roman alphabet in England). His poems, such as 'Christ', deal with religious subjects.

 

Middle English Literature

In the battle of Hastings, fought on Oct. 14, 1066, Harold II, last of the Anglo-Saxon kings, was killed (see Hastings, Battle of). William the Conqueror then assumed the kingship. After subduing vicious resistance, he established a rule that was almost entirely Norman-French. The Norman conquest greatly changed English life. All positions of power were filled by Frenchmen. Over all the old English vigor was imposed this foreign culture.

The Old English language went untaught and was spoken only by "unlettered" people. The language of the nobility and of the lawcourts was Norman-French; the language of the scholars was Latin. This situation lasted for nearly 300 years. During this period the Old English language changed. Its old case endings broke down, and the grammar became quite simple. Anglo-Saxon words were lost, and French words were added. The strong, crude iron of the Old English language was being slowly shaped into the flexible steel of present-day English.

The cult of chivalry came into being, fed by the great Crusades. The tales of King Arthur and his Round Table were a result of this movement. Education flourished; and the first universities, Oxford and Cambridge, were founded in the 12th century.

During these 300 years there was little literature in the changing English language. The few lyrics ('Sumer is icumen in', 'Alysoun', 1300?) and other works ('Ormulum', 1200?; Layamon's 'Brut', 1205?) have a small interest.

The Middle English period also marked the beginning of a native English drama, which was at first closely associated with the church. About 900 the antiphonal chant "Quem quaeritis in sepulchre, o Christocolae?" was first used preceding the Introit of the Mass. Other dramatic additions were made to the sacred offices, and soon dialogue between individual members of the choir was added in celebrations of certain feast days. Finally, miniature dramas developed. In time these little plays (or tropes), becoming more secular, were moved out doors. (See also Drama.)

The early cycles of miracle and mystery plays possibly began as celebrations of traditional religious feasts and fasts. In any case, by the end of the 14th century the observances of certain festivals, for example, Corpus Christi, regularly involved pageants. These plays were staged in larger towns, such as York, Wakefield, and Chester, on wagons which were moved from place to place in a procession, perhaps chronological, of events. (See also Miracle Play.)

In addition to mystery and miracle plays, morality plays were also popular at the end of the Middle English period. They usually personified such abstractions as Health, Death, or the Seven Deadly Sins and offered practical instruction in morality.

 

Chaucer Heralds a New Literature

By the end of the 14th century the language (in its altered form called Middle English) was being used by nobles as well as commoners. In 1362 it became the language of lawcourt pleadings, and by 1385 it was widely taught in place of French.

Most of the great literature of the time was written from 1360 to 1400, a good part of it by one man, Geoffrey Chaucer (1340?-1400). Chaucer was one of the world's greatest storytellers. His 'Canterbury Tales' is a masterpiece, with characters who remain eternally alive--the Wife of Bath, with her memories of five husbands; the noble Knight, returned from heroic deeds; his gay young son, the Squire ("He was as fressh as is the month of May"); the delightful Prioress ("At mete [meat] well ytaught was she with alle/ She let no morsel from her lippes falle."); and entertaining scoundrels, such as the Friar, Summoner, and Pardoner. (See also Chaucer.)

At the same time as Chaucer, another man was writing in the northern part of England. He is known as the Pearl Poet (14th century), from the name of one of his four poems in an old manuscript. Generally he is remembered for his narrative poem 'Sir Gawain and the Green Knight'.

There are a number of poems about Sir Gawain (just as there are about Sir Lancelot, Sir Perceval, and King Arthur); but this is the best. Unfortunately, it is written in the Lancashire dialect and is almost as difficult to read as Old English. Chaucer may be read with a little study because the Midland dialect in which he wrote became the standard one for English writing. Even in translation, however, 'Sir Gawain and the Green Knight' is fascinating.

Another poet contemporary with Chaucer was William Langland (1330?-1400?), a figure almost as shadowy as the Pearl Poet. His masterpiece, also in a somewhat difficult dialect, is 'The Vision of William Concerning Piers the Plowman'. It consists of a series of dream-visions in which human life passes in review. Langland wrote with power and sincerity. He attacked the social ills of his time, rebuked evildoers, and urged men to "learn to love."

For nearly 200 years after the death of Chaucer there were almost no great literary works produced in England. One noteworthy exception is 'Le Morte d'Arthur', by Sir Thomas Malory (died 1470?). Malory made up this great collection of stories about King Arthur and his knights of the Round Table from the Arthurian legends circulating in French plus the English romances about the knights. 'Le Morte d'Arthur' was the main source for later retellings of the stories.

The other outstanding literary achievement of the times was the creation of the great English and Scottish ballads. These were probably sung by people at social gatherings. The ballads preserved the local events and beliefs and characters in an easily remembered form. It was not until several hundred years later that people began to write down these ballads. They are immensely vivid stories that modern readers find especially attractive. Three familiar ballads are 'The Wife of Usher's Well', about her three ghost sons; 'Sir Patrick Spens', concerning his death by drowning; and 'Edward', about his murderous revenge.