Lecture 14. Psychological issues in the formation of special teaching methods in special psychology.

There is a diversity of communication and interaction needs and, indeed, a wide variation in the terminology used to refer to this group of children. It is also important to note that the nature of these needs may change over time, as may the ways in which these impact upon children’s learning. It is also difficult to equate the terminology used in much of the research literature with the classifications used in the Pupil Level Annual Schools Census (PLASC), since some of the literature regarding severe learning difficulties (SLD), or profound and multiple learning difficulties (PMLD), tends to be inextricably linked with a consideration of communication and interaction. Consequently, for the purposes of this review it was decided to think about the children associated with this strand in terms of in three broad groupings. These are as follows: − Children with speech, language and communication needs (SLCN). In much of the research literature, children with SLCN are referred to as having specific speech and or language impairments (SSLI), or as children with specific speech and or language difficulties (SSLD). Here the work of Dockrell and Lindsay, (2000) has been influential in that they went some way towards establishing a common terminology for those children who are unable to express themselves in the normal effortless way as their peers, and where the difficulty cannot be attributed to physical or sensory impairments, (Bishop, 1997; Adams Byers Brown and Edwards, 1997). Such communication difficulties are said to affect about 7.4% of the child population (Tomblin, Records, Buckwater et al., 1997). − Children with communication and interaction difficulties associated with severe and profound learning difficulties. This group of children tend to communicate at an early intentional or pre-intentional level. They may adopt atypical, idiosyncratic, non-verbal or augmentative (assisted) methods of interacting with the world around them (Coupe-O’Kane and Goldbart, 1998). Intervention aims may vary from bringing the child’s language skills up to an age equivalent level, engendering social interaction with peers, using basic cognitive processes to develop information handling and management within the curriculum, removing obstacles to enable the child to participate in learning and the life of the school (See Dee, Byers, Hayhoe and Maudslay, 2002 and Byers, 1998, in relation to children and young people with more complex communication difficulties). − Children with Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD). This term covers a range of pervasive developmental disorders which include ‘classic’ autism (often in association with additional learning difficulties), for instance: • Asperger syndrome which is sometimes referred to as ‘high functioning autism’; • Heller’s and Rett’s syndromes (these two being degenerative conditions that may exhibit autistic features (e.g. see Dempsey and Foreman, 2001); and pervasive developmental disorder (PDD-NOS). Children in this group are seen as displaying deficits in three key areas, atypical communication and social development, adherence to ritualistic behaviour, plus a resistance to change (Howlin, 1998), with variable age of onset. Figures for incidence and prevalence vary widely because of the variety of labels used in different studies. Principal theoretical perspectives under-pinning the research literature Several theoretical perspectives appear to underpin this literature. The field is complicated by the differing perspectives from which the research originates, e.g. psycholinguistic, (work on SSLI by Bishop 1997), behaviourist perspectives (e.g. influencing some ASD pedagogies), and developmental-interactionist or social constructivist perspectives, which are sometimes found in methods used with children with more complex communication and interaction difficulties. Preferred theoretical perspectives are also influenced by whether the researcher comes from a teaching, clinical therapeutic and or neuropsychological background. This, in part, explains the complexity of complementary terminologies used in the context of this strand. The main overall models are as follows: Behavioural: methods associated with this perspective usually involve imitation, shaping, rehearsal reinforcement, usually task or skill specific. Targets are designed to be defined and measurable. Cognitive: here the focus is usually on using and developing basic cognitive processes to improve skills in information storage, processing, organizing and retrieval. This may be at a phonological processing level, word level (semantics and grammar or syntactic level), or sentence level. Other related perspectives include different models of auditory memory, and approaches that examine how different aspects of language are stored and called up when needed. Developmental: this perspective involves an analysis of the developmental stages through which a child is believed to pass. Although still prevalent in some literature, this model is no longer exclusive. Naturalistic approaches, as opposed to ‘direct’ teaching methods, may sometimes be included within this framework. Interactionist: this perspective is known by a number of names, including experiential learning. It emphasises the development of meaningful relationships with the child’s environment, instead of teaching of skills in isolation. The child is encouraged to gain from positive experiences of 13 communication and interaction, to solve problems, and to devise and use a variety of increasingly complex communicative intentions and strategies.

Children with Speech, Language and Communication Needs • This group of children is often described in terms of a developmental delay or disorder. Many children experience delays during childhood affecting their speech or language development. For the majority of children these difficulties resolve themselves with maturation and/or as a result of therapy. A language disorder is suspected when there is a discrepancy between verbal and non-verbal cognitive ability. • Reports of approaches and teaching strategies have generally focused on placement, intervention and curriculum differentiated provision using highly individualised, child specific programmes. • The type of intervention available varies according to geographical area, whether the speech, language and communication needs are primary or secondary to other difficulties, e.g.

Вehaviour problems or attention difficulties, and systemic arrangements (Law, Lindsay, Peacey et al., 2000). • Children with SLCN were noted to benefit particularly from mainstream education with additional support mechanisms, especially in the early years, but also extending into secondary education. (Conti-Ramsden, Knox et al., 2002). 2.4.2 Children with communication and interaction difficulties associated with profound and multiple learning difficulties. • It has been argued that enhancing the communication of this complex group of individuals is fundamental to their participation and achievement, in all areas of the curriculum (QCA/DfEE, 2001). This philosophy has influenced a greater emphasis in the research literature for this area in recent years, • Approaches have moved away from task-centred, essentially behaviourist, incrementally designed approaches, towards a more social constructivist stance (see section on social constructivist teaching in chapter 3: Cognition and Learning). • The teaching of skills out of context and adherence to developmental checklists based on normally developing infants has been questioned by some researchers, (e.g. Sebba, Byers and Rose, 1995), since such methods discourage peer interaction and forms of experiential learning that would be both meaningful and relevant to the individual child concerned. • Research has led to a more ‘sensory’ based approach being used in order to develop opportunities for exploration of and interaction with multi-sensory environments (Aitken and Buultjens, 1992; Ware, 1996; 2003), or for intensive interaction (see Nind, 1996; Hewett and Nind, 1998). • The use of ‘objects of reference’, and other formal and informal communication enabling systems are encouraging a more open, inclusive (child- and whole-school) centred approach to this group of individuals with more complex needs (Aitken, Buultjens, Clark, Eyre and Pease, 2000). 2.4.3 Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) • There are a wide variety of comprehensive and specific teaching approaches used with children with ASD, and very few are used in isolation. According to Drudy (2001), Jordan et al. (1998) and Siegel (2000), current methods include: applied behaviour analysis (Lovaas therapy), aromatherapy, art therapy, behaviour modification (for teaching skills or managing behaviour), computer assisted learning, daily life therapy, diet, drama therapy, EarlyBird, facilitated communication, floor time (the Greenspan approach), Geoffrey Walden approach, Hanen programme, holding therapy, Makaton signing and symbols, massage, the Miller method, music therapy, musical interaction therapy, option method, picture exchange communication system (PECS), sensory integration, Sherborne movement, social stories, speech and language therapy, treatment and education of autistic and communication handicapped children (TEACCH). • Jordan et al. (1998) report that an eclectic approach is usually adopted and practice is influenced by the experience and expertise of staff and of visiting professionals (i.e. speech and language therapists, educational psychologists). • For many of the approaches above there is limited or no research evidence relating to their effectiveness. Examples include aromatherapy, art therapy, option method, and holding 15 therapy. Some teaching approaches have been researched and reported as having no beneficial effects. These include facilitated communication and auditory integration training (Drudy, 2001). Other approaches have a research base with mixed results. These include sensory integration and daily life therapy (Drudy, 2001; Jordan et al., 1998). Finally, there are two main approaches that have (a) been subjected to research, and (b) provided promising outcomes. These are applied behaviour analysis (ABA) and treatment and education of autistic and communication handicapped children (TEACCH). 2.5 Phases of education The research evidence is difficult to classify in terms of the phases of education. Typically, ages are cited in the literature but reference to educational ‘stages’ is less common. Accounts of research are rarely related to subject or Key Stages, with one or two notable exceptions such as: 2.5.1 Pre-school • Descriptions of intervention studies were conducted on small numbers of subjects and tended to examine improvements in skill deficits, such as poor receptive vocabulary, improvement of lexical learning, developing pragmatic (social communication) skills, or encouraging interactive relationships with the world around the child. The effectiveness of the interventions in terms of language gain, cumulative and learning effect is not generally stated in reviews of methods. Effective approaches optimised opportunities for learning how to communicate (See, for example, Windfuhr, Faragher and Conti-Ramsden, 2002 and Giolametto et al. 1996 for SLCN; Dawson and Osterling 1997 for ASD). • A significant body of literature reviewed by Fraser (1998) indicates that success in this phase is related to early support to foster high quality forms of interaction between parent and child, e.g. Portage (Bluma et al., 1976), Sure Start and Hanen Programmes (Manolsen, 1992), with the NAS Earlybird Programme (Hardy, 1999 and Shields, 2001), and intensive interaction (Nind and Hewett, 2001) not coming in until the child started at school. 2.5.2 Key Stages 1-2 • As noted above, there is a substantial body of research on teaching strategies and approaches for children with autism. For instance, Panerai, Ferrante and Zingale (2002) compared TEACCH to an integration approach with two groups of matched children over 12 months. They found TEACCH to be the significantly more effective approach in improving a range of physical, intellectual and communication skills in school age children with ASD. Meanwhile, other studies also show other approaches/strategies for teaching children with ASD that appear to be effective. • A focus on language processing, information management and the development of generation of language and communication was reported to be of long lasting benefit for children with SLCN (see Spooner, 2002 and Crosbie, Dodd and Howard 2002). • Teaching word roles in semantic and syntactic (grammatical) contexts are used in some approaches to teaching children with SLCN (see Windfuhr at al 2002). • Progress at KS1 and KS2 was reported in longitudinal studies (see earlier), but little was covered beyond this point. Some approaches were seen as being dependent on type of provision (see Dockrell and Lindsay, 1998; Knox,, 2002). 16 • There are inherent problems in the current assessment of children’s progress throughout their education, because measurement is primarily language based. Current guidelines for testing arrangements for children with SEN do not have formal provision for children who are perceived to be disadvantaged by language and communication impairments both in the classroom or through more formal examination arrangements, although many have informal arrangements in place. 2.5.3 Key Stages 3-4 • Lees and Urwin (1998) provide guidance and a review of approaches considered to be useful with teenagers who have 'language disorders’. • Snowling et al. (2001) and Adams et al. (2001) investigated school leavers with SLCN at the end of KS4. The studies highlight the importance of on-going literacy support for young people with literacy difficulties.