Stylistic classification of the English vocabulary: neutral, colloquial, literary coinages, poetic, vulgarisms

Word -stock of any lan­guage, it must be presented as a system, the elements of which are in­terconnected, interrelated and yet independent.

The word-stock of a language may be represented as a definite system in which different aspects of words may be singled out as interdependent. A special branch of linguistic science —lexicology—has done much to classify vocabulary.

For our purpose, i.e. for linguistic stylistics, a special type of classi­fication, viz. stylistic classification, is most important.

In accordance with the already-mentioned division of language into literary and colloquial, we may represent the whole of the word-stock

-Speciai Literary Vocabulary

-Common Literary Vocabulary

-Neutral Words

-Common ColloquiaL Vocabulary

-Profession­alisms i special Colloquial Vocabulary (non-Literary)

The com mon literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the term standard English vocabu­lary.

Neutral words, which form the bulk of the English vocab­ulary, are used in bott literary and colloquial language. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy. It is the neutral stock of words that is so prolific in the production of new meanings

Common literary words are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech. One can always tell a literary word from a colloquial word. The reason for this lies in certain objective features of the literary layer of words.

Colloquial: kid daddy, Literary: infant,parent. Neutral: child father

Both literary and colloquial words have their upper and lower ranges. The lower range of literary words approaches the neutral layer and has a markedly obvious tendency to pass into that layer. The same may be said of the upper range of the colloquial layer: it can very easily pass into the neutral layer. The lines of demarcation between common colloquial and neutral, on the one hand, and common literary and neutral, on the other, are blurred. It is here that the process of inter-penetration of the stylistic strata becomes most apparent.

Synonyms of neutral words, both colloquial and literary, assume a far greater degree of concreteness.

Poetic words form a rather insignificant layer of the special literary vocabulary. They are mostly archaic or very rarely used highly literary words which aim at producing an elevated effect. Poetic words and expressions are called upon to sustain the special elevated atmosphere of poetry.

Poetical tradition has kept alive such archaic words and forms as yclept (p. p. of the old verb clipian—to call, name); quoth (p. t. of owed-an — to speak); eftsoons (eftsona,— again, soon after),

The use of poetic words does not as a rule create the atmosphere of poetry in the true sense; it is a substitute for real art.

Poetic words are not freely built in contrast to neutral, colloquial and common literary words, or terms.

Literary Coinages (Including Nonce-Words) There is a term in linguistics which by its very nature is ambiguous and that is the term neologism. In dictionaries it is generally defined as * a new word or a new meaning for an established word

The coining of new words generally arises first of all with the need to designate new concepts resulting from the development of science and also with the need to express nuances of meaning called forth by a deeper understanding of the nature of the phenomenon in question. It may also be the result of a search for a more economical, brief and compact form of utterance which proves to be a more expressive means of commu­nicating the idea.

The term vulgarism, as used to single out a definite group of words of non-standard English, is rather misleading. The ambiguity of the term apparently proceeds from the etymology of the word.

These two submeanklgs are the foundation of what we here name vul­garisms. Sot* vulgarisms are: ^

1) expletives and swear words which are of an abusive character, like 'damn', 'bloody', 'goddam' and, as some dictionaries state, used now as general exclamations;

2) obscene words. These are known as four-letter words the use of which is banned in any form of.intercourse as being indecent.

Phonetic Expressive means: onomatopoeia.

Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech-sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder, etc), by things (machines or taols, etc), by people (sighing, laughter, patter of feet, etc) and by animals. Combinations of speech sounds of this type will inevitably be associated with whatever produces the natural sound. Therefore the relation^between onomatopoeia and the phenomenon it is supposed to represent is one of metonymy.

There are two varieties of onomatopoeia: direct and indirect

Others require the exercise of a certain amount of imagination to de­cipher it.

Onomatopoetic words can be used in a transferred meaning, as for instance, ding-dong, which represents the sound of bells rung continu­ously, may mean 1) noisy, 2) strenuously contested. Examples are:

a ding-dong struggle, a ding-dong go at something.

Phonetic Expressive means: alliteration, assonance

The expressive means of a language are those phonetic, morphological, word-building, lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms which exist in language-as-a-system for the purpose of logical and/or emotional intensification of the utterance.

A stylistic device is a conscious and intentional intensification of some typical structural and/or semantic property of a language unit (neutral or expressive) promoted to a generalised status and thus becoming a generative model.

The stylistic approach to the utterance is not confined to its structure and sense. There is another thing to be taken into accounts which, in a certain type of communication (belles-lettres style) plays an important role. This is the way

a word, a phrase or h sentence sounds. The sound of most words taken separately will have little or no aesthetic value. It is in combination with other words that a word may acquire a desired phonetic effect.

Alliteration.

Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device which aims at imparting a melodic effect to the utterance. The essence of this device lies in the repetition of similar sounds in particular consonant sounds, in close succession, particularly at the beginning of successive words: eg.

The po ss essive in s tinct never s tand s s till. Through f lorescence and f eud, f rosts and f ires it f ollows the laws of progression.

Alliteration like most phonetic expressive means does not bear any lexical or other meaning unless we agree that a sound meaning exists as such. But even so we may not be able to specify clearly the character of this meaning, and the term will merely suggest that a certain amount of information is contained in the repetition of sounds, as in the case with the repetition of lexical units.

Therefore alliteration is generally regarded as a musical accompaniment of the author's idea, supporting it with some vague emotional atmosphere which each reader interprets for himself.

Alliteration is frequently used in idioms:

Blind as a bat, tit for tat, last but not the least, as

good as gold.

In the titles of the books:

Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice.

Or in poetry:

I love your hill s and 1 love your dale s.

I love your flock s a-bleating.

Assonance

A variant of alliteration is assonance, that's repetition of the same or similar vowels only: eg.:, wear and tear (My shoes show signs of wear and tear).

This device is sometimes found in poetic speech:

Tenderly bury the fair young dead — the repetition of the sound [e].

Tell this soul with sorrow laden i f, within the distant

Aidenn,

It shall clasp a sainted maiden whom the angels named

Lenore-

Clasp a rare and radiant maiden, whom the angels named

Lenore? - the repetition of the sound [ei].

 

Rhyme, types of rhyme

Rhyme is a repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations of words. Rhyming words are generally placed at a regular distance from each other. In verse (they are usually placed at the end of the corresponding lines. We

distinguish between:

1) full rhyme presupposes identity of the lower sound and the following consonant sounds in a stressed syllable: eg. might-night

2) incomplete rhymes can be divided into:

a) in vowel rhymes the vowels of the syllables in corresponding words are identical, but consonants may be different:

f le sh -f re sh - p re ss

b) consonant rhymes show concordance in consonants and disparity in vowels:

wor th -for th; t a l e - t oo l - t reb l e - t roub l e

3) in broken or compound rhymes one word rhymes with a combination of words; or two or even three words rhyme with corresponding two or three words: eg.: bottom - forgot ' em — shot him

4) in eye-rhyme the letters and not sounds are identical. Compound rhyme is perceived in reading aloud eye-rhyme can only be perceived in the written verse:

love - prove, flood - brood.

By the type of the stressed syllable we distinguish the male rhyme, when the stress falls on the last syllable in the rhymed rhymes, and the female rhyme, when it falls on the last but one syllable:

When the lamp is shattered (f)

The light in the dust lies dead (m)

When the cloud is scattered (f)

The rainbow's glory is shed, (m)

According to the way the rhymes are arranged within the stanza certain models have crystallized:

1) couplets - when the last words of two successive lines are rhymed: (aa)

2) paired rhymes - the rhyming pattern is aabb\

The seed ye sow, another reaps; (a)

The wealth ye find, another keeps; (a)

The robes ye weave, another wears; (b)

The arms ye forge, another bears, (b)

3) cross rhymes - the rhyming pattern is abab:

A slumber did my spirit seal (a)

I had no human fears (b)

The seemed a thing that could not feel (a)

The touch of earthly years, (b)

4) framing or ring rhyme - the rhyming pattern is abba:

Much have I travell'd in the reams of gold (a)

And many goodly states and kingdoms seen (b)

Round many western islands have I been (b)

Which bards in fealty to Apollo hold (a)

5) internal rhyme - the rhyming words are placed not at the ends of the lines but within the line:

1 bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers.

Bathos and Irony

Heterogeneity of the component parts of the utterance in the basis for a stylistic device called bathos. Bathos is an abrupt transition in style from the exalted to the

commonplace, producing a ludicrous effect. Unrelated elements are brought together as if they denote things equal in rank or belonging to one class, as if they were of the some stylistic aspect. By being forcibly linked together, the elements acquire a slight modification of meaning: eg.

Let us have wine and women, mirth and laughter,

Sermons and soda-water — the day after.

So, we have 3 pairs of words: wine and women, mirth and laughter, sermons and soda-water. The second pair consists of almost synonyms. This affects the next pair and makes the words sound as if they were as closely related as the words in the first two pairs. We may interpret them as a tedious but unavoidable remedy for the sins committed. The juxtaposition of highly literary norms of expression and words or phrases that must be classed as nonliterary, sometimes low colloquial or even vulgar, will produce a stylistic effect and add an element of humour:

Will you oblige me by keeping your trap shut,

darling?

While often unintended, bathos may be used deliberately to produce a humorous effect: Eg. The ballerina rose gracefully en pointe and extended one slender leg behind her, like a dog at a fire hydrant.

Irony.

Irony is a stylistic device also based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings - dictionary and contextual but the two meanings stand in opposition to each other:

It must be delightful to fmd oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one's pocket.

Usually the direct meaning in such cases expresses a positive evaluation of the situation, which the context contains the opposite, negative evaluation.

The word containing the irony is strongly marked by intonation. In has an emphatic stress and is generally supplied with a special melody design.

Irony must not be confused with humor. Humor always causes laughter. But the function of the irony is not confined to producing a humorous effect. It rather expresses a feeling of irritation, displeasure, pity or regret. Irony is generally used to convey a negative meaning. Therefore only positive concepts may be used in

their logical dictionary meanings: eg.

Today was a very cold and bitter day. as cold and bitter as a cup of hot chocolate; if the cup of hot chocolate had vinegar added to it and were placed in a refrigerator for several hours.