The most frequently words used in scientific prose are functional words; conjunctions and prepositions

a) prepositions: of, to, in, for, with, on, at, by, from, out, about, down; b) prepositional phrases: in terms of; in view of, in spite of, in common with, on behalf of, as a result of; by means of, on the ground of, in case of; c) conjunctional phrases: in order that, in case that, in spite of the fact that, on the ground that, for fear that; d) pronouns: one, it, we, they; e) notional words: people, time, two, like, man, made, years.
As scientific prose is restricted to formal situations and, consequently, to formal style, it employs a special vocabulary which consists of two main groups: words associated with professional communication and a less exclusive group of so-called learned words.

A particularly important aspect of scientific and technological language is the subject-neutral vocabulary which cuts across different specialized domains. In particular, a great deal of scientific work involves giving instructions to act in a certain way, or reporting on the consequences of having so acted. Several lexical categories can be identified within the language of scientific instruction and narrative:
Verbs of exposition: ascertain, assume, compare, construct, describe, determine, estimate, examine, explain, label, plot, record, test, verify.
Verbs of warning and advising: avoid, check, ensure, notice, prevent, remember, take care; also several negative items: not drop, not spill.
Verbs of manipulation: adjust, align, assemble, begin, boil, clamp, connect, cover, decrease, dilute, extract, fill, immerse, mix, prepare, release, rotate, switch on, take, weigh.
Adjectival modifiers and their related adverbs: careful(y), clockwise, continuous(ly), final(ly), gradual(ly), moderate(ly), periodic(ally), secure(ly), subsequent(ly), vertical(ly).
The general vocabulary employed in scientific prose bears its direct referential meaning, that is, words used in scientific prose will always tend to be used in their primary logical meaning.. Even the possibility of ambiguity is avoided.
Likewise neutral and common literary words used in scientific prose will be explained, even if their meaning is slightly modified, either in the context or in a foot-note by a parenthesis, or an attributive phrase.
A second and no less important feature is the use of terms specific to each given branch of science. But the overwhelming majority of terms do not undergo this process of de-terminization and remain the property of scientific prose. There they are born, develop new terminological meanings and there they die. No other field of human activity is so prolific in coining new words as science is. A term will make more direct reference to something than a descriptive explanation, non-term. Furthermore, terms are coined so as to be self-explanatory to the greatest possible degree. But in spite of this, a new term in scientific prose is generally followed or preceded by an explanation.
In modern scientific prose one can observe an exchange of terms between various branches of science. It is due to the interpenetration of scientific ideas. Collaboration of specialists in related sciences has proved successful in many fields. The exchange of terminology may therefore be regarded as a natural outcome of this collaboration. Mathematics has priority in this respect. Mathematical terms have left their own domain and travel freely in other sciences, including linguistics.
A third characteristic feature of scientific style is special sentence-patterns. They are of three types: postulatory, argumentative and formulative. Therefore every piece of scientific prose will begin with postulatory statements which are taken as self-evident and needing no proof. A reference to these facts is only preliminary to the exposition of the writer’s ideas and is therefore summed up in precisely formulated statements accompanied, if considered necessary, by references to sources.

 

16) Functional Styles of the English Language. The Style of Official Papers.

A FS of l-ge is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication. A FS is thus to be regarded as the product of a certain concrete task set by the sender of the message. Functional styles appear mainly in the literary standard of a language. They are also called discourses.

Belles-lettre, Publisitic, Newspaper, Scientific Prose, of Official Documents. Stable system, but change from 1 period to another. Belles-lettres style, function - aesthetico-cognitive. Aim- to call aesthetic feelings of pleasure and promote cognitive process. Publicistic S. Sphere- mass media, aim- to influence public opinion, to persuade. Newspaper S. Sphere: mass media restricted by press (lang of newsp & governmental magazines). Function: to inform. Aim: to comment, to inform of certain political, cultural, economic events; to influence the public opinion on political or other matter. Scientific Prose. Sphere: science activity. Function: to give logical progress of some idea. Aim: to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts. Style of Offic Doc-s. Sphere: business, jurisdiction. Function: instructive, regulative. Aim: to reach agreement between two parties.

The Belles-lettres style has the following subtypes a) the language style of poetry; b) the language style of emotive prose; c) the language style of drama.

The Publicistic FS comprises the following substyles: a) the language style of oratory; b) the language style of essays; c) the language style of feature articles in newspapers and journals.

The newspaper FS falls into a) the language style of brief news items and communiqués; b) the language style of newspaper head­ings and c) the language style of notices and advertisements.

The scientific prose FS also has three divisions: a) the language style of humanitarian sciences; b) the language style of "exact" sciences; c) the language style of popular scientific prose.

The official document FS can be divided into four varieties: a) the language style of diplomatic documents; b) the language style of business documents; c) the language style of legal documents;  

d) the language style of military documents.

The most striking feature is a special system of clichés, terms and set expressions by which each substyle can be easily recognized. Thus in finance we find terms like extra revenue, liability. In diplomacy such phrases as high contracting parties, memorandum, to ratify an agreement are found. In legal language, examples are to deal with a case, a body of judges.

The vocabulary is characterized not only by the use of special terminology but the choice of lofty (bookish) words and phrases: plausible (=possible); to inform (=to tell); to assist (=to help); to cooperate (=to work together); to promote (=to help something develop);

to secure (=to make certain) social progress; with the following objectives/ends (=for these purposes); to be determined/resolved (=to wish); to endeavour (=to try); to proceed (=to go); inquire (to ask).

Besides the special nomenclature characteristic of each variety of the style, there is the use of abbreviations, conventional symbols and contractions. Another feature of the style is the use of words in their logical dictionary meaning. There is no room for words with contextual meaning

All these varieties use abbreviations, conventional symbols and contractions, for example, M.P. (Member of Parliament), Ltd (Limited), $. Abbreviations are especially abundant in military documents. They are used not only as conventional symbols, but also as signs of military code. Another feature of the style is the use of words in their logical dictionary meaning. There is no room here for the realization of any other meaning here.

Like other styles of language, this style has a definite communicative aim and accordingly has its own system of interrelated language and stylistic means. The main aim of this type of communication is to state the conditions binding two parties in an undertaking. These parties may be:

the state and the citizen, or citizen and citizen (jurisdiction);

b) a society and its members (statute or ordinance);

c) two or more enterprises or bodies (business correspondence or contracts);

d) two or more governments (pacts, treaties);

e) a person in authority and a subordinate (orders, regulations, authoritative directions);

f) the board or presidium and the assembly or general meeting (procedures acts, minutes).

 

Task II.