Stylistic devices based on the interaction of logical and emotive meanings (epithet, oxymoron)

Epithet is a stylistic device based on the interaction of the logical and emotive meanings. It shows the purely individual emotional attitude of the writer or the speaker towards the object mentioned.

Epithet is expressed by:

1) adjectives;

2) adverbs;

Adjectives and adverbs constitute the greatest majority of epithets.

3) participles, both present and past;

4) nouns, especially often in of-phrases;

5) word-combinations;

6) whole phrases.

The last two groups of epithets help the writer in a rather concise form to express the emotional attitude of a personage towards an object or phenomenon. In most cases it is a direct quotation of the character’s remark. Such a usage of a quotation for an epithet stresses the subjectivity, individuality of the character’s perception. It renders the emotional attitude of the personage.

Phrase-epithet helps not only to reveal the individual view of the author and his characters but at the same time to do it in a rather economical manner.

One more structural type of epithet is “monopolized” by the English language. It is based on the illogical syntactical relations between the modifier and the modified. Such constructions enable the writer to use nouns of high emotional coloring, supplying them with additional characteristics without overcrowding the description.

Epithets vary not only in structure but in the manner of application too. So, most often we meet one-word, or simple epithet. Rather often epithets are used in pairs. Not seldom three, four, five and even more epithets are joined in chains.

From the viewpoint of their expressive power epithets can be regarded as those stressing qualities of the object or phenomenon and as those transferring the quality of one object to its closest neighbour. When the same definition is given to a smile it becomes an individual evaluation of the same, and is classified as a transferred epithet. A metaphoric epithet presents a metaphor within an epithet.

In most cases metaphoric epithet is expressed by adjectives and adverbs. Into the same group of metaphoric epithets must be included compound epithets, the second element of which is “-like”.

As all the other stylistic devices, epithets become hackneyed through long usage.

Epithets should not be mixed up with logical attributes which have the same syntactical function but which do not convey the subjective attitude of the author towards the described object, pointing out only the objectively existing feature of the same.

e.g. “Can you tell me what time that game starts today?” The girl gave him a lipsticky smile.

Oxymoron is based on the interaction of logical and emotive meanings. It presents a combination of two contrasting ideas.

The oxymoron reveals the contradictory sides of one and the same phenomenon. One of its components discloses some objectively existing feature or quality, while the other one serves to convey the author’s personal attitude towards the same.

The structure of oxymoron is extremely varied. By most critics it is regarded as an attributive syntagma.

As soon as an oxymoron gets into circulation it loses its most characteristic feature of bringing two opposite ideas together and becomes a phraseological unit.

 

Stylistic devices based on the interaction of primary and derivative logical meanings (polysemy, zeugma, pun)

Simultaneous realization within the same short context of two meanings of a polysemantic word is called zeugma. E.g. “All girls were in tears and white muslin”. Here the independent meaning of the verb “were” (to be in white muslin – to be dressed in white muslin) and its phraseological meaning (to be in tears – to cry), which slightly faded in the phraseological unit, are realized simultaneously.

The same effect is achieved when the word upon which the effect is based, is repeated, which creates the stylistic device of pun. Such simultaneous realization of two meanings sometimes leads to a misunderstanding, deliberately organized by the author. The same happens with the ambiguous use of prepositions, which leads to mixing up the attribute with the prepositional object.

The further away are the meanings of a polysemantic word, the stronger is the stylistic effect achieved by their simultaneous realization. Humoristic effect is achieved here due to the ridiculousness of bringing together two such different meanings.

Two homonyms have still less in common than two meanings of a polysemantic word, and their realization within the same context always brings forth a pun.

Another device based on the interaction between the primary and secondary meanings is violation of a phraseological unit. The inner mechanism of this device lies in the literal interpretation of the elements of a phraseological unit, though the ways to achieve it are different: it can be the author’s intrusion into the unit. E.g. “… it took a desperate, ungovernable, frantic hold of him.”

Another way of violation of a phraseological unit is its prolongation.

Very often violation of a phraseological unit takes place in proverbs and sayings, most of which are set phrases and fusions.

A false phraseological coinage occurs mainly in direct speech of personages to characterize them through their speech. The final result achieved is always humorous.

As we have seen the interaction between the primary and secondary meanings of a word is realized in many ways and for its main stylistic function has the achievement of humorous effect.

 

Stylistic devices based on interrogative and negative constructions (rhetorical question, litotes)

Rhetorical Question

Rhetorical question presents a statement in the form of a question. A question appealing to the reader for an answer, is emphatic and mobilizes the attention of the reader even when the latter is not supposed to answer anything, when the only possible answer is implied within the boundaries of the question.

The form of a rhetorical question is often negative.

Rhetorical question preserves the intonation of a question, though sometimes the assertive sentiment is so strong that both the intonation and the punctuation are changed to those of the exclamatory sentence.

Rhetorical question is an indispensable element of oratorical style, but is not confined to it only, more and more penetrating into other style. So it is widely employed in modern fiction for depicting the inner state of a personage, his meditations and reflections.

Through frequent usage some rhetorical questions became traditional (for example, What business is it of yours? What have I to do with him? etc.)

Such questions usually imply a negative answer and reflect a strongly antagonistic attitude of the speaker towards his interlocutor or the subject discussed.

e.g. Can anybody answer for all the grievances of the poor in this wicked world?

Litotes

Litotes presents a statement in the form of a negation.

The stylistic device of litotes is used to weaken the positive characteristics of a thing or phenomenon. It is based upon discrepancy between the syntactical form, which is negative and the meaning which is positive. E.g. “She said it, but not impatiently” We have here an assertion of a certain positive fact but its form is negative. The obligatory presence of the particle “not” makes the statement less categorical and conveys certain doubts of the speaker as to the quality he mentions.

The structure of litotes is rather rigid: its first element is always the negative particle “not” and its second element is, too, always negative in meaning, if not in form.

If the second element of litotes is expressed by an adjective or adverb, it has as a rule a negative affix.

If the form of a noun or a word-combination, presenting the second component of litotes is not negative, its negative meaning is implied.

The final result of litotes is always the assertion of a positive, though weakened quality or characteristics.