UNIT 5 Central Control of the Economy

 

In states which have a communistic system, private property and private enterprise are reduced to a minimum. They exist, but are limited to a small area of the economy. Karl Marx conceived of a world in which there would be no private property whatsoever. Communism in theory states that all property should belong to the State. In practice, however, the citizens of state like Cuba are permitted to have personal effects.

The important thing about the communist system is its central planning. The State organizes the whole economic effort of the nation. A central authority with complete power decides what goods and services will be produced. The authority decides what quantities of goods will be produced, and also controls their quality, deciding how they will be distributed and what prices will be charged for them. In addition, the State provides all (or most of) the services which the citizens require. It is responsible for the economy, and is therefore concerned with methods of production as well as with quality and quantity. The national economy must be planned ahead over a number of years.

A Marxist economy is planned. The system is related to the needs of the State as a whole, not to the needs of the private person. The emphasis is on collective effort and not on personal effort, so that the individual is subordinated to the needs of the collective State.

 

 

Exercise 1. Answer your questions, basing your answers on the text.

 

a. What two things are greatly reduced in a communistic system?

b. What area do they occupy in the economy?

c. What did Karl Marx proposed about private property?

d. What is the theoretical communist view on property?

e. What is the position in practice?

f. What does the state do in the communistic system of central planning?

g. What two decisions does the central authority make?

h. What does the authority control?

i. What can the authority do about prices?

j. What is the state responsible for and what must it do?

 

 

Exercise 2. Say whether these statements are true or false, and if they are false say why.

 

a. Private property in a capitalistic state is reduced to a minimum.

b. Karl Marx wanted a world in which there would be no private property.

c. Communist theory and practice are not exactly the same as regards property.

d. Central planning by the state is an essential part of the communistic system.

e. The central authority decides on the quantity, quality, price and place of sale of any commodity.

f. The central authority is responsible for the economy but is not concerned with methods of production.

g. The word "Marxist" is very similar in meaning to the word "communist".

h. Marxism is concerned with the needs of the private individual.

i. Collective needs are more important in a communist state than the needs of the individual.

 

 

Exercise 3. Make these sentences passive, omitting the agent phrase.

 

EXAMPLE: The government reduced private property to the minimum.

Private property was reduced to the minimum.

a. The government limited private enterprise to a small area in the economy.

b. They permit the citizens to have personal property.

c. The workers will produce only essential commodities.

d. That factory produced a large quantity of shoes last year.

e. You will charge more money for these services.

f. The central authority must plan the economy over a number of years.

g. The authorities provided large number of workers for the ten new factories.

h. The government reduced the quantity of shoes produced in tat factory.

i. The State organized the whole economic effort of the nation.

j. The central authority has planned the whole economic programme for the next five years.

 

 

Exercise 4. Combine these pairs of sentences, using what and would.

 

EXAMPLE: This quantity of goods will be produced. The planners decided it.

The planners decided what quantity of goods would be produced.

a. These goods and services will be produced. The central authority decided it.

b. These prices will be changed for the goods. The planners decided it.

c. This quality will be most suitable. The government considered it.

d. This commercial activity will be useful in the next few years. The planning authority decided it.

e. These changes will be made in the organization of the factory. The employers and employees discussed it.

f. These conditions will affect the national economy in the next twenty years. The economists considered the matter.

Exercise 5. Change the listed adjectives into adverbs (- ly or -ally as necessary) and put one adverb in each sentence in order to make sense. Some adverbs can operate successfully in more than one sentence, but each has a letter to indicate the best choice.

 

EXAMPLE: great – great ly

Their private property was ___ reduced.

Their private property was greatly reduced.

 

careful (b) scientific (e) considerable (h) usual (j)

rapid (a) systematic (c) regular (i)

clear (f) profitable (g) complete (d)

 

a. New government worked ___ to change the laws.

b. The central authority ___ controls the quality and quantity of goods.

c. The state ___ plans the economic efforts of the citizens.

d. The economic system changed ___ over the thirty year period.

e. Work in economics should always be done ___.

f. Their economic system is ___ capitalistic.

g. The employers will ___ discuss the use of new machines in the factory.

h. The city has changed ___ in the last few years.

i. These men work ___ from 9 o'clock till 5 every day.

j. In a free economy there is ___ very little central planning.

 

Now make up your own sentences with these adverbs.

Exercise 6. Put prepositions in the blanks of these sentences.

 

EXAMPLE: The central authority is concerned ___ methods of production.

The central authority is concerned with methods of production.

a. His capital was finally reduced ___ nothing.

b. They charged quite a lot of money ___ that commodity.

c. The government is usually responsible ___ the people ___ the conditions of the national economy.

d. Citizens are required to conform __ the law.

e. He agreed ___ the other economists that the system was unusual.

f. He was paid well ___ the government ___ the work he did.

g. The people hoped ___ a reduction in the price ___ essential goods.

h. That man subscribed __ a number of important newspapers and magazines containing information ___ economics.

i. The consumption ___ coal and steel has increased greatly ___ resent years.

j. They have provided many services ___ the citizens ___ that town and do not charge very much ___ the services.

 

 

Exercise 7. Combine these pairs of sentences, using which.

 

EXAMPLE: That is the garage. In that garage the new car is kept.

That is the garage in which the new car is kept.

a. Economics is a science. In that science everything must be studied in an objective way.

b. Cuba has a system. In that system central planning is very important.

c. The USA has an economy. In that economy government planning is limited to quite a small area.

d. Marxism proposes a special economic system. In that system collective needs are more important than individual needs.

e. The British have a certain way of life. In that way of life private enterprise and private ownership of property are very important.

f. The Americans and the British have separate ideologies. In these ideologies there are many similar points.

 

 

Exercise 8. Combine these groups of three sentences using would and should. The table shows the relations between will/would and shall/should in sentences of this type.

 

	direct statement	indirect statement
simple future	will	would
obligation	shall	should

 

EXAMPLE: These goods and services will be produced. These prices shall be charged. The central authority decided these things.

The central authority decided what goods and services would be produced, and what prices should be charged.

a. These prices will be charged for the commodity. This quality shall be made available.

The planners discussed these things.

b. This quality will be most suitable. This quantity shall be produced.

The government considered these things.

c. These conditions will affect the international economic system in the next ten years.

These plans shall be adopted. The economists could not agree on these things.

d. These changes will be made next year. These crops shall be grown.

The farmers decided these things.

e. These changes will be made in that factory. These wages shall be paid to the workers for the next two years. The employers did not discuss these things.

 

Exercise 9. Make these words negative by adding the prefix in- and altering it to suit the consonant which follows.

 

(a) legal – in + legal – il legal

(b) probable – in + probable – im probable

(c) regular – in + regular – ir regular

 

a practical b possible c regular d mobile e proper

f rational g legible h logical i personal j relevant

 

Make up your sentences with these words in negative form.

 

 

Exercise 10. The table shows how words are formed around the verb produce. List all the words you can make from the table and use them in suitable blanks in the sentences.

 

produc	e	r
t	iv(e)	ity
ion

 

a. The company ___ a new commodity every year.

b. The company's newest ___ is a special blue soap powder.

c. The ___ of soap powders met last year to discuss price.

d. That factory is not as ___ now as is was five years ago.

e. The ___ of that factory has gone down over the last five years.

f. The manager of the factory has decided that they must increase their ___ of packets of soap powder.

 

 

Exercise 11. This table shows how certain nouns can be formed from certain adjectives, as for example, activity from active. Make a list of the nouns and put each word in its suitable place in the sentences. NOTE the loss of the letter e in active, secure, mobile and productive.

 

active equal secure complex mobile liquid

ity

solid regular productive similar rapid

ity

 

a. The system was complex. Its ___ surprised them.

b. The movements of the products in the factory was rapid. The ___ of the work surprised them.

c. People who have cars are very mobile. This ___ is a useful thing.

d. The National Bank has a solid reputation. Its ___ in money is similar to the ___ of the buildings.

e. The national economy, like a man, should be active. Its ___ is a sign of its health.

f. Your money is secure in the National Bank. Its ___ is important both to you and to the bankers.

g. The workers in those factories are very productive. Their ___ is very useful to the national economy.

h. Those men arrive regularly at nine o'clock. Their ___ is well-known.

i. The American and British economic systems are very similar. This ___ is not surprising.

j. Those two men earn equal sums of money. They have ___ in wages because they produce the same quantity and quality of goods.

k. The exchange of money should be as liquid as possible. The ___ of money helps the economy to grow.

 

 

Exercise 12. Write about 300 words on the topic "Economic Systems". Use the material in the texts and exercises.

 

 

Essential Vocabulary

1. be reduced бути зменшеним, зниженим; скороченим

2. comprise містити в собі, вміщати, охоплювати

3. charge the price for призначати, правити, вимагати (певну) ціну за

4. central authority центральна влада

5. personal effects особисте майно, особисті речі людини

6. the liquidity of money ліквідність грошей

 

UNIT 6 Mixed Economies

No state today is completely communistic or completely capitalistic. The various national economic systems tend generally towards one type or the other, but many systems are difficult to classify.

It has been found necessary in many countries, even in such dedicated strongholds of free enterprise as the USA, to control or regulate national economic conditions. The under-developed countries of the world are inevitably interested in control and long-term plans guided by the government. India has had a number of plans guided by the government. India makes a clear distinction between the public sector and the private sector of its economy. Systems of this type are sometimes called mixed economies.

Britain nowadays has a mixed economy. In the public sector of British economic life are the nationalized industries like coal and steel, British Rail and BOAC. In the private sector are the majority of the nation’s industries, both large and small, from giants like ICI and BP to small family businesses.

In 1962 the government set up an official planning body to guide national economic policies. This body is known as the National Economic Development Council. The members of the NEDC are representatives of the employers' federation, and the Trades Union Congress, together with members of the government, eminent industrialists and leading economists.

The main function of the NEDC is planning national production and setting up production targets. It is however a very difficult matter to plan ahead in a mixed economy. It is not possible to plan ahead with any certainty even in a rigidly controlled economy, because natural disasters, political changes and other factors can affect the general plan in unexpected ways.

 

BOAC: British Overseas Airways Corporation

ICI: Imperial Chemical Industries

BP: British Petroleum

 

 

Exercise 1. Answer these questions. You may answer Yes or No. Give your reasons. Quote from the text in support of your answer.

 

a. Are there any completely communistic states?

b. Are there any completely capitalistic states?

c. Do the various national economies tend towards one or another ideology?

d. Are the various economic systems difficult to classify?

e. Have most countries found economic control necessary?

f. Has the US felt the same need?

g. Are the under-developed countries interested in control and planning?

h. Has India had a number of national economic plans?

i. Is the Indian economy based entirely on private enterprise?

j. Does the Indian economy have two different sectors?

k. Is the Indian system a mixed economy?

l. Is BOAC a national British industry?

m. Is ICI a nationalized British industry?

n. Was the NEDC set up by the British government?

o. Are both employers and employees represented on the NEDC?

 

 

Exercise 2. Say whether these statements are true or false, and if they are false say why.

 

a. Cuba is completely communistic.

b. The USA is not completely capitalistic.

c. Many economic systems in the world are not difficult to classify.

d. Even the USA finds it necessary to control national economic conditions to a certain extent.

e. The interest of the under-developed countries in longterm planning is inevitable.

f. India makes a clear distinction between the two sectors of its typically mixed economy.

g. The nationalized industries in Britain are inevitably in the private sector of the economy.

h. Giants like ICI and BP are not publicly owned.

i. The British government controls the economy very strictly through the NEDC.

j. Planning ahead in a mixed economy is not particularly difficult.

 

 

Exercise 3. Invert these sentences.

 

EXAMPLE: The majority of the nation's industries are in the private sector.

In the private sector are the majority of the nation's industries.

a. The nationalized industries are in the public sector of British economic life.

b. Goods like coal and iron are among the most important commodities in any economy.

c. Essential services like transport and education are in the public sector of national economy.

d. Food production and distribution are in the private sector of national economy.

e. Coal and steel industries are among the activities controlled by the government.

 

 

Exercise 4. You inverted five sentences in Exercise 4 by beginning with the prepositional phrases in those sentences. Sentences are often inverted in order to add more information to the subject of the sentence. It is easier to add this information if the subject comes at the end.

Add the following information to your five sentences, in order to practice the technique.

 

EXAMPLE: In the private sector are the majority of the nation's industries. These industries play a vital part in maintaining the life of the nation.

In the private sector are the majority of the nation’s industries, which play a vital part in maintaining the life of the nation.

a. (to 4.a) These industries include various types of transport, steel-production and coal-mining.

b. (to 4.b) Coal and iron are vital minerals in any nation's list of resources.

c. (to 4.c) Transport and education employ a large part of the national workforce.

d. (to 4.d) Food production and distribution are perhaps the most basic activities in any economy.

e. (to 4.e) These industries are generally classified as heavy industries.

 

Exercise 5. Change these sentences by changing certain adjectives into verbs. The new verbs are listed but not in the proper order. Note that all these verbs are concerned with making smth. happen, or causing smth. to happen.

 

EXAMPLE: They made the economy regular.

They regulated the economy.

complicate consolidate liquidate simplify

nationalize internationalize activate re-activate.

 

a. They made the subject complex.

b. They made the subject simple.

c. They made the business 'solid' (by bringing them together).

d. They made the business 'liquid' (by breaking it up or 'dissolving' it).

e. They made the economy active.

f. They made the economy active again (or for a second time).

g. They made the industry national (or public).

h. They made the business international.

 

 

Exercise 6. Combine these pairs of sentences in the two ways shown in the example.

 

EXAMPLE: The government has set up an official committee. This committee must decide national economic policy.

i => The government has set up an official committee which must decide national economic policy.

ii => The government has set up an official committee to decide national economic policy.

a. The economists have organized a commission. This commission must study the economic problems of Latin America.

b. The workers have demanded an investigation. This investigation must find out what happened in the factory.

c. The trade unions have asked for a new plan. This plan must regulate the flow of work.

d. The government has proposed a new scheme. This scheme must come into operation next year.

e. The employers have prepared a special scheme. This scheme must be approved by the government.

Exercise 7. Arrange the following sentences in their proper order, to produce a paragraph about the National Economic Development Council.

 

A It meets regularly, under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister. B Each committee is concerned with an individual industry and is composed of members from management, the trade unions, government committees and three independent members. C The NEDC which was set up in 1962, brings together repre­sentatives of government, management and the trade unions, and provides a meeting place for the discussion of future policy and planning.

D The EDCs study measures to improve efficiency and competitive power in each industry. E Other members are the ministers of the main economic departments of the government, representatives of management and trade unions and the nationalized industries, independent members and other interested people. F The NEDC has set up twenty-one Economic Development Committees.

Exercise 8. In each of these sentences a word is missing. Provide a word from the lines 4-14 of the text Mixed Economies..

 

a. Cuba is a _____ of communism.

b. The Americans are _____ to a system of private enterprise.

c. To control an economy is much the same as to _____.

d. The work was carefully _____ by the authorities for five years.

e. It is necessary to make a sharp_____ between planned and unplanned economies.

f. He does not work in this _____of the economy but in the public one.

g. A mixed economy possesses some of the qualities of the two main _____of economic system.

h. Coal, steel and farming are very important national _____.

i. The _____ of the workers were happy about the new plan, but a small number were not.

j. Some industrial _____, like BP and ICI, are international as well as national in their activities.

 

 

Exercise 9. Study the table. It shows how words can be formed by adding first the suffix - ify, and then the suffix - cation (with suitable changes in spelling).

 

EXAMPLE: simple => simplify => simplification

 

Use the table and the example to help you fill in the blanks in the sentences.

 

 

simple note pure class clear (= clar-)	ify
ification

 

NOTE Remember to remove the 'e' in simple, note and pure.

 

a. This plan is not simple enough. We must therefore _____ it. The _____ of the plan is essential.

b. The economy of that country belongs in the Marxist group or class. We must therefore _____it as communistic. The _____of the economy of that country is not difficult.

c. That water is not pure enough. It is necessary therefore to _____ it. The _____ of the water is a matter of public health.

d. Please send a note to the members of the Council. You should _____them of the date of the next Council meeting. The _____ should reach them this week.

e. The economics teacher tried to make the situation clear. He tried to _____ his description by making it simpler. When he had made this _____, his students understood the whole matter much better.

 

 

Exercise 10. Seven words can be formed from the basic word nation. This table shows how to do it. Make a list of the words, and put each word in its suitable place in the sentences. You will also need the word nation itself.

 

stem	suffix
nation	al	ize	d
atio
ism
ist	ic

 

a. The USA is the homeland of the American _______.

b. Most countries have _______ banks, such as the Bank of England.

c. The Socialist Party has plans to_______ various privately owned industries.

d. British Rail is already a _______ industry, because it is publicly owned.

e. The name given to the change from private to public ownership is _______.

f. In the last twenty years _______ has been a strong political force leading to the formation of any new nations.

g. A person who is interested in the progress and history of his own country may be called a __.

h. Many governments have certain policies which are not international but simply _______.

 

 

Exercise 11. Write about 400 words on the topic 'Mixed Economies'. Your work should be in two parts: (i) an introduction on economic systems in general; (ii) mixed economies in particular.

 

 

Essential vocabulary

1. tend towards тяжіти до, мати тенденцію; схилятися (до чогось)

2. longterm planning довгострокове планування

3. make a distinction розмежовувати, проводити різницю

4. workforce = staff, personnel, employees, workers

5. consolidate = unite об'єднувати(ся) (про території, товариства)

6. break the business up = dissolve the business розпускати, ліквідовувати фірму

7. stronghold твердиня, фортеця, цитадель

8. the flow of work хід роботи

9. scheme = plan, project, programme

10. be approved бути схваленим, затвердженим

 

 

UNIT 7 Revision and Conclusion (Units 1-6)

 

Most people work to earn a living, and produce goods and services.

Goods are either agricultural (like maize), or manufactured (like

cars). Services are such things as education, medicine and commerce.

Some people provide goods; some provide services. Other people

provide both goods and services. For example, in the same garage 5

a man may buy a car or some service which helps him maintain his

car.

The work people do is called economic activity. All economic

activities taken together make up the economic system of a town, a

city, a country or the world. Such an economic system is the sum- 10

total of what people do and what they want. The work people do

either provides what they need or provides the money with which they

can buy essential commodities. Of course, most people hope to have

enough money to buy commodities and services which are non-

essential but which provide some particular personal satisfaction, 15

such as toys for children, visits to the cinema and books.

The science of economics is based upon the facts of our everyday

lives. Economists study our everyday lives and the general life of

our communities in order to understand the whole economic system of

which we are part. They try to describe the facts of the economy in 20

which we live, and to explain how it works. The economist's methods

should of course be strictly objective and scientific.

We need food, clothes and shelter. We probably would not go to

work if we could satisfy these basic needs without working. But even

when we have satisfied such basic needs, we may still want other 25

things, such as the toys, visits to the cinema and books mentioned

above. Our lives might be more enjoyable if we had such things.

Human beings undoubtedly have a wide and very complex range

of wants. The science of economics is concerned with all our needs:

with the desire to have a radio as well as the basic necessity of 30

having enough food to eat.

So far we have suggested that economic systems are the same every-

where. This is not entirely true. Not all economic systems in the

world are the same. The economic system of the USA differs greatly

from the system in Cuba. The American system is based on private 35

enterprise and is essentially capitalistic, while the Cuban system

is communistic and based on the principles of Karl Mark, the 19th

century political economist. The economic systems of these two

nations contrast very strongly.

Britain is similar to the USA. It has an economic system based 40

on private enterprise and private supplies of capital. An important

form of capital is surplus income available for investment in new

business activities. Property in both the US and Britain can be and

is owned by individual citizens and these citizens exercise conside-

rable economic freedom of choice. They can choose what they want to do 45

and how they want to earn their living, but are not of course entire-

ly free to do as they wish. They must obey the law. Otherwise, however,

they can use their time, money and energy as they wish. If a person

can do this, then economists say that he is economically free. In all

communities, of course, limits are imposed upon personal freedom, 50

limits which are sometimes very complex.

Complete economic freedom of action can create great difficulties,

because the freedoms exercised by various individuals inevitably con-

flict. If citizens were completely free, some landowners might build

factories in unsuitable places, while some factory owners might make 55

their employees work too long each day. If they were completely free

workers might stop working when they got their first pay, and come

back only when they needed more money. Such economic anarchy

could create instability in the entire economy of a country.

Laws which relate to economic conditions are sometimes con- 60

cerned with contracts between employers and employees. Sometimes

they are concerned with workers' health, wages and pensions, and so-

metimes with the location of places of work. Sometimes they protect

the interests principally of the workers, while at others they may

be beneficial to the employers. The government policy towards both 65

employees and employers will depend very much upon the political

and economic ideology which the government adopts, and may be

biased towards employers and capital on the one hand, or workers

and the problems of labour on the other.

In states which have a communistic system, private property and 70

private enterprise are reduced to a minimum. They exist, but are

limited to a small area of the economy. Karl Marx conceived of a

world in which there would be no private property whatsoever.

Communism in theory states that all property should belong to the

State. In practice, however, the citizens of states like Cuba are 75

permitted to have personal effects.

The important thing about the communist system is central plan-

ning. The State organizes the whole economic effort of the nation.

A central authority with complete power decides what goods and

services will be produced. The authority decides what quantities of 80

goods will be produced, and also controls their quality, and decides

where they will go and what prices will be charged for them. Addi-

tionally, the State provides all (or most of) the services which the

citizens require. It is responsible for the economy and is therefore

concerned with methods of production as well as quality and quantity. 85

The national economy must be planned ahead over a number of

years.

Marxist economies are planned. The system is related to the needs

of the State as a whole, not the needs of the private person. The

emphasis is collective and not individual, so that the individual is 90

subordinated to the needs of the collective State.

The central authority in communist countries performs the func-

tion of the price system in capitalistic economies. Under capitalism

the prices of goods and services are related to supply and demand.

The system operates freely, dependent upon the quantities available 95

and what people want. Therefore we say that in private enterprise

systems the production of goods tends to follow price movements, to

rise when prices rise and fall when prices fall. This rise and fall

is not however normal in communist countries. The control exercised

by the State prevents any such fluctuation of prices. Government 100

planners under communism therefore know what goods are available

and what prices will be charged, but economists in non-communist

systems do not always know this.

No state today is completely communistic or completely capital- 105

istic. The various national economic systems tend towards one type

or the other, but many are difficult to classify. It has been found

necessary in many countries to exercise some degree of control over

national economic conditions, and under-developed nations parti-

cuiarly are interested in longterm plans. Countries like India have

had a number of plans guided by the government. India makes a 110

clear distinction between the public sector and the private sector

of its economy and so has a system called a mixed economy.

Britain today has a mixed economy. In the public sector are the

nationalized industries like coal and steel, British Rail and BOAC.

In the private sector are the majority of the nation's industries, 115

from giants like ICI and BP down to small family businesses. In 1962

the British government set up an official planning body known as the

National Economic Development Council, a body which would help

plan national production and set up production targets. The members

of the NEDC are representatives of both the employers' federations 120

and the TUC, together with members of the government, eminent

industrialists and leading economists.

It is however a very difficult matter to plan ahead in a mixed

economy. It is not possible to plan ahead with any certainty even in

a rigidly controlled economy, because natural disasters, political 125

changes and other factors can affect the general plan in unexpected

ways.

 

Exercise 1. Answer these questions. They relate to lines 92-103 of the text.

 

a. What performs the function of the capitalistic price system in communist countries?

b. What are prices in a capitalistic system related to?

c. What does the price system depend upon?

d. In a capitalistic system, what does production follow?

e. When does production fall?

f. In a communistic system, what does the control exercised by the State prevent from happening?

g. What do economists in communist countries usually know?

 

 

Exercise 2. Below is a list of pronouns occurring in the text. Say what each pronoun refers to.

 

EXAMPLE: they (line11)

ANSWER: 'they' refers to 'people' in line 11.

 

a it (line 21) b It (40) c They (45)

d he (49) e they (56) f they (62) g its (112)

 

 

Exercise 3. Below are 45 words taken from earlier units. Make each word negative by adding a suitable prefix: non-, un- or in- (or il-, im-, ir- as required.

 

economic available organic frequent practical

active probable sufficient responsible rational

distinct regular conditional necessary solvent

legal mobile complete satisfactory suitable

systematic productive desirable enjoyable industrial

public legible essential expert proper

definite important usual relevant communist

dependent logical stable personal scientific

secure adequate equal political conclusive

 

 

Exercise 4. Combine these pairs of sentences by means of 'if', in order to make new conditional sentences. It may be necessary to change some words in some of the sentences in order to make complete sense.

 

a. We have a car. / We can be much more mobile.

b. You want to get a new house. / You must earn a lot of money.

c. You will complete the work more rapidly. / You all work together on it.

d. We buy these goods this week. / We may be able to sell them next week, and make some extra money.

e. You buy your essential commodities from us. / Perhaps we shall be able to sell them to you more cheaply than other shops.

f. There is no system of control. / Certain people may decide to build factories in unsuitable places and employ workers for long hours.

g. They may increase their output. / Their employers provide better working conditions.

h. We may provide some help now. / You undertake to help us later.

Revision Units 1-7