Translate the following text into Ukrainian in written form

Text 8

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

A car engine looks like a large block of metal. And it is. It is a large block of cast iron. In this block there are round holes. These holes are the cylinders. The cylinder block of a car usually has four or six cylinders. In the cylinder the power of petrol is controlled. In each cylinder there is a piston. It can move up and down inside the cylinder. Its shape is like the bottom half of a bottle. It has cast iron rings round it. These piston rings help it to fit tightly inside the cylinder. A connecting rod comes from inside the piston. The top of each cylinder is covered. There are three holes in the top. Two are for valves which open and shut. These are the inlet valve and the exhaust valve. The other hole is for the sparking plug. The sparking plug ignites (fires) the mixture of air and petrol by means of a spark and causes it to explode.

When the inlet valve opens, a mixture of air and petrol is sucked into the cylinder.

The mixture fills the space above the pistons. When the inlet valve is open the exhaust valve is closed.

Smoke and gases remain after the explosion of the petrol and air mixture. When the exhaust valve opens, the smoke and gases are pushed out of the cylinder.

THE FOUR-STROKE CYCLE

To complete the firing cycle the piston must move along the cylinder four times. These movements called strokes.

The suction (drawing in, intake) stroke.

In this stroke the piston is moving down the cylinder. The inlet valve is open. A mixture of air and petrol is drawn into the cylinder above the piston.

The compression (pressing together) stroke.

In this stroke the piston is moving up the cylinder. Both valves are closed. The piston moves up as far as it can. It pushes the mixture of air and petrol in front of it. It compresses it into the space above the cylinder.

The explosion (firing, power) stroke.

In this stroke, the spark fires the mixture and it explodes. The energy released by the burning mixture forces the piston down the cylinder.

The exhaust (emptying out) stroke.

In this stroke the piston is moving up the cylinder. The exhaust valve is open. Smoke and gases remain after the explosion. The piston pushes them in front of it. They are pushed through the exhaust valve opening. They leave the cylinder through the pipe. Now the cycle begins again.

a) Complete the sentences with the active form of the verb in brackets:

1. The company CAV ……… (never/to manufacture) 5 million engines a year.

2. She ……… (to be) to London four times. We ……… (to go) there by plain.

3. Our company ……… (to employ) over 1000,000, ……… (to operate) in many overseas markets and ……… (to offer) a wide range of hi-tech products for the 21^st century.

4. I’m afraid Mr Bansall can’t see you right now. He’s ……… (to interview) someone.

5. A: Is John feeling OK? He ……… (to look) very red in the face.

6. B: Yes, I know. I ……… (to look for) the doctor’s phone number now.

7. A: ……… (you/to have) a car?

8. B: Yes, but I …..... (to have) some problems with it, so it …..(to be) at the garage now.

Text 9

THE CARBURETOR

The carburetor has two main parts. There is a container (the chamber) which controls the flow of petrol. The pump forces the petrol through a pipe into the chamber. If the chamber is full, the float rises. This causes the needle valve to close. Petrol cannot enter. As the chamber empties, the float sinks. The valve opens. More petrol enters the chamber. There is also a choke tube. This tube is open at the top so that air can be sucked in. Pipes lead from the bottom of the tube to the inlet valves of the cylinders. The air and petrol mixture is sucked into the cylinder. This flow of mixture is controlled by a throttle valve. This is a round piece of metal like a large coin. It is moved by the accelerator pedal.

A small pipe leads from the chamber to the choke tube. The petrol flows through this. There are very small holes (jets) at the end of the pipe. As the induction stroke sucks air down the tube, it also sucks petrol through these jets. The petrol is broken up into thousands of very small drops to form a vapor. It mixes with the air. The mixture is sucked into the cylinders.

When the accelerator pedal is pushed down, the throttle is opened. More air is sucked into the carburetor. More petrol and air mixture goes to the cylinders. The explosions in the cylinders are stronger. The car goes more quickly. When the pedal is let out, the throttle closes. There is less mixture. The explosions are weaker. The car goes more slowly.

Text 10

THE CRANKSHAFT

The piston goes up and down but the car wheels go round. So something must change the up-and-down movement. The connecting rod is connected to the piston. The connecting rod can swing from side to side. The big end is connected to a shaft (the crankshaft). The crankshaft can move round inside the big end. As the piston goes up and down, the connecting rod causes the crankshaft to go round.

When you ride a bicycle, your legs go up and down. The pedals and the chain wheel go round. The movement of the connecting rod is like your leg movement. So the connecting rod causes the crankshaft to go round. This circular movement goes through the gears to the car wheels.

THE CAMSHAFT

As the crankshaft turns, it turns another shaft. This is the camshaft. There is a wheel with teeth at one end of the crankshaft. This wheel is connected by a chain to a bigger wheel. This bigger wheel is at the end of the camshaft. So when the crankshaft turns, the camshaft turns too. The camshaft has cams for each cylinder. They open and close the inlet and exhaust valves on each cylinder.

The cams turn with the shaft. As the high part of the cam comes up, it pushes up a rod. This rod pushes up one of a lever (the rocker arm) the other end of the lever pushes down the valve and opens it.

On each valve there is a strong spring. As the lower part of the cam comes round, the spring forces the rocker arm up. This closes the valve. The turning of the shaft is set in a certain way. It makes the inlet and exhaust valves open and shut at the right time.

There is a gear wheel in the middle of the chamber of the camshaft. It does two things. It turns the distributor. It works the oil pump.

The camshaft turns the distributor. The distributor distributes electricity to the sparking plug. The sparking plug fires the petrol and air mixture in the cylinder, at the right time in the firing cycle. So the camshaft controls the firing cycle.

THE IGNITION SWITCH

The ignition switch is an electrical switch that turns the current off or on in the ignition circuit. It operates in the same manner as the light in your home. It is usually located on the instrument panel and is operated by a key, so that only the person who has the key can turn on the switch. The ignition switch, in addition to completing the ignition circuit, usually has additional terminals which complete the circuits to the instruments or warning lights (fuel, temperature, oil pressure, charging), to the accessories (heater, radio, etc.) and to the starting motor. The ignition, instrument, and accessories circuits are connected when the switch is turned to the accessories position. Only the starting circuit is connected when the ignition switch is in the start position.

 

Text 11

THE BATTERY AND COIL

The battery is used to store electricity. The electrical pressure (voltage) of a car battery is only 12 volts. When high voltage electricity jumps a space between two points it causes a spark. This happens in the sparking plug. A voltage of about 7,000 volts will cause a good spark. How do we get 7,000 volts from a 12-volt battery?

The coil does it. The coil is really two coils of wire: the primary coil and the secondary coil. The electricity (12 volts) from the battery flows through the primary coil. Suddenly stopping the flow to the primary coil causes a very strong flow in the secondary coil. The flow through the primary coil is stopped by the contact breaker.

 

 

Text 12

THE COOLING SYSTEM

When the engine is working, it gets hot. The heat comes from the explosion in the cylinders and from friction. How is it kept cool? This is usually done with water. The water flows from the radiator. It flows through holes in the cylinder block. The water enters the bottom of the block. When it is hot it rises to the top of the block.

From there it flows back into the top of the radiator. A small pump helps it to flow. The hot water from the engine flows slowly through the radiator. The air makes the water cool again. The flow of air is helped by a fan. The fan is moved by the crankshaft.

Some engines are cooled by air only, not by water.

Text 13

 

THE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

The transmission system carries (transmits) the movement of the crankshaft to the wheels. It has three main parts: the change gears; the clutch; the rear axle gears.

A gear is only a strong steel wheel with teeth. If a small gear with 25 teeth turns twice, it will turn a gear with 50 teeth once. This is a low gear. If a large gear with 50 teeth turns once, it will turn a gear with 25 teeth twice. This is a high gear. Gears can have as many teeth as are needed.

The crankshaft of a car engine can turn as fast as 6,000 times a minute. One turn is a revolution. So that is 6000 revolutions per minute (rpm). This speed is too great to transmit straight to the wheels. It is made less by two things:

1. The change gears.

2. The differential gears in the back axle.

Let us look first at the change gears.

The change gears

In the gearbox there are three shafts: 1. the driving shaft is turned by the crankshaft. It has a fixed gear wheel near its end. 2. The driven shaft leads to the back axle. On this shaft there are two gears. One gear is larger than the other. These gears can move along the shaft in grooves. They can move backwards and forwards. They are moved by the gear lever. 3. The lay shaft. Four gears of different sizes are fixed on this shaft. The largest always meshes with the gear on the driving shaft. So, when the engine is running the lay shaft must be turning. It must also turn more slowly than the driving shaft. Its gear is larger.

The gear box is about half full of oil.

First of bottom gear

First gear: The large gear on the driven shaft meshes with the smaller forward gear on the lay shaft. The engine is running fast but the driven shaft and the wheels turn slowly. This gear is used to start the car moving.

Second gear

Second gear: The smaller gear on the driven shaft mashes with the second largest gear of the same size. The one on the lay shaft is only a little smaller. This gear is used to increase the speed of the car.

Top gear

Top gear: the driving shaft joins straight on to the driven shaft. The car is now moving very fast. There is little difference between the engine speed and the speed of the wheels. If the car has to slow down, the driver will have to change to a lower gear.

NEUTRAL GEAR

Neutral gear. The driving shaft is turning but it is not transmitting any movements to the driven shaft. The gears are not meshing. The engine is running but it is not turning the car wheels. This gear is used when the car stops for a short time, like at traffic lights. It is also used when the engine is first started.

Reverse gear (In this gear the car moves backwards).

The fourth gear on the lay shaft meshes with the larger gear on the driven shaft. It does this through a small third gear. This gear reverses the movement of the driven shaft. This is how it does it:

The driving shaft is turning clockwise (CW). This turns the lay shaft anti-clockwise (ACW). The lay shaft turns the third gear clockwise. The third gear turns the driven shaft anti-clockwise. So it reverses the driven shaft’s movements. The car is driven backwards.

Text 14

THE CLUTCH

The clutch helps when the driver changes gear. Strong springs press it against the flywheel. These springs push against the cover plate. Round the inside of the clutch plate there is rough material. This does not slip easily. So, when the flywheel turns, the clutch plate turns too. This movement goes to the gears. When the clutch pedal is pushed down, the clutch plate is pulled away from the flywheel. There is a space. The crankshaft is turning but the movement is not going to the gears or the wheels. Now the gears can be changed. When the clutch pedal is let out the springs push the clutch plate against the flywheel again. The movement of the crankshaft now goes through the gears to the wheels. Note. Automatic cars do not have a clutch like this. They have no clutch pedal.

REAR AXLE GEARS

1. From the chang e gears the movement is transmitted to the back axle by the propeller shaft. At the back end of this shaft is a fixed gear (the pinion).

2. The back axle has two halves. A strong gear (bevel wheel) is fixed to each half.

3. A strong box covers the bevel wheels. This box turns when the axles turn.

4. To one side of this box is fixed a large gear (the crown wheel). When it turns, it turns the box and the axles.

5. The pinion meshes with the crown wheel. When the pinion turns, it turns the crown wheel and the box and the axles.

Round the inside of the box are fixed four small gears (differential pinions). Each pinion can turn freely. These pinions mesh with the bevel wheels on the axles. The differential pinions do not turn when the car is going straight. They make the bevel wheels and the axle turn at the same speed.

The outside wheel has farther to go when the car is turning. So it must move faster than the inside wheel. So the differential pinions turn when the car is turning. Now the outside wheel can travel faster than the inside wheel. So the differential pinions allow the two wheels to turn at different speeds when the car is turning.

Text 15

THE BRAKES

When the brake pedal is pushed down, it forces oil (hydraulic fluid) through small pipes. These pipes lead to the brakes. A drum is fixed to each wheel. This goes round with the wheel. The fluid forces the brake shoe to rub against the drum.

There are also disc brakes. A metal disc is fixed to each wheel. The fluid forces a pad to rub against the disc. The friction between the brake shoe and the drum, or the pad and the disc, slows down the wheel.

Springs on the axles give a smooth movement to the car body. Two kinds of springs are used. They are leaf springs and coil springs. Leaf springs are unusually on back axles. Coil springs are on front axles.

Shock absorbers filled with oil also help. These go in and out telescopes.

SOME DIFFERENCES

Alternators: Many modern cars do not have a dynamo. They have an alternator. The alternator is usually in the same place as the dynamo. The fan belt turns the alternator. The flow of electricity from a dynamo is direct current (DC). From an alternator it is alternating current (AC). The alternating current is changed to direct current for the battery. The current from an alternator is very strong. Its flow to the battery is controlled by a regulator.

Diesel four-stroke cycle

Diesel engines: many lorries and some cars have diesel engines. The diesel engine has no carburetor and no electrical system to make a spark. It has no sparking plugs. One piston stroke sucks air only into the cylinder. The next stroke compresses the air in a small combustion chamber. The air is very hot. A drop of oil is forced into the chamber. It mixes with the hot air and burns. The energy released, forces the piston down. The next stroke is the exhaust stroke.

Front wheel drive: in some cars the engine turns the front wheels. Rear engine car: in some cars the engine is at the back (rear) of the car. Both cars have the usual transmission system. They have no long propeller shaft because the engine is close to the wheels.

1. Complete the sentences with the active form of the verb in brackets:

1. Bill was painting his front door when the telephone ……… (to start) ringing. He ……… (to answer) the phone and ……… (to speak) to his friend. Later he ……… (to notice) that he ……… (to leave) red fingerprints all over the phone.

2. Last Friday I ……… (to walk) to work when I ……… (to see) an old friend I ……… (not to see) for a long time. I ……… (throw) my arms around him. He ……… (to stare) at me with an open mouth. To my horror I ……… (to realize) I ……… (to mistake) him for my friend.

3. Fill in “since” or “for”.

Sue Wilson has been involved in sports … for … more than 25 years. Her first interest was gymnastics, which she has been actively involved in ……… she was ten, but she has also been interested in other forms of sport ……… many years. She has been a keen cyclist ……… 1980 when she made her first bicycle tour of Europe and ……… her marriage to all-round sportsman Tom Wilson in 1985, she has tried her hand at climbing, sailing and skydiving. Her talent as a writer has kept her busy ……… the past ten years and she has become familiar to TV viewers as a sports commentator ……… her first TV appearance in 1988. Her plans for the future? “I’ve been interested in the role of women in sports ever ……… I was a teenager. Now, after being so busy ……… all these years, I’ve decided to take some time off so I can write a book about it. “Since Sue has been part of the sporting world ……… so long, her book should be fascinating.

Text 16

1. Put the missing prepositions into the questions. Ask them your partner:

a) Do you often go ________ the speed limit?

b) When you see an amber light, do you step ________ the gas or the brakes?

c) Do you become very annoyed and angry when you are stuck ________ traffic?

d) Have you ever gone ________ a red light?

e) Do you always slow ________ for pedestrians?

f) Do you often honk your horn ________ other drivers?

g) Do you always look both ways before you turn ________ intersections?

h) Do you always remember to turn ________ your turn signal when you are making a turn?

THE CHANGING EXPECTATIONS

OF AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERS

In the past, automotive engineers were closely associated with the field of mechanical engineering. After all, most automotive engineers dealt with topics such as gasoline and diesel engines, transmissions, suspension systems, chassis, door handles, seats, etc. A few ventured off into new developments such as turbine gas engines, continuously variable transmissions, or even Sterling engines. Some dealt with plastics and painting systems. The vast majority of knowledge needed by the automotive engineer of the past was mechanical in nature.

The reality of today is that the automotive engineer is expected to know about far more than just mechanical engineering. To attract the best and brightest, the industry needs to project an image of the automotive engineer as someone with skills and knowledge beyond mechanical engineering.

The modern automobile has often been described as a computer on wheels. It is that and more — much more. Electronics control component systems such as the engine, transmission, and brakes. Those controls have become not just add-ons but integral parts of the operation of each system and the whole vehicle. A focus is on intelligent vehicle technology, which highlighted the integration of more electronics into the vehicle.

No longer can design engineers "throw their designs over the wall" to the manufacturing engineer. The design engineer must know enough about the manufacturing capability of his/her organization or supplier, and the manufacturing engineer must be an early participant in the design team. Competitive quality and cost require that the design specifications match the manufacturing capability. Empty promises by manufacturing ("give us a design and we will build it") are no longer accepted.

Software development is not only necessary to achieve optimum operation of each vehicle computer, but vehicle performance evaluation prior to design is becoming standard practice. Computer simulation for demonstrating compliance with regulations will probably be widely accepted in the not-too-distant future.

Text 17

THE CAR OF THE FUTURE

It is a cold winter morning but your car is waiting for you, warm and comfortable, at exactly the temperature you like. You open the door by pressing your finger against the lock and your car greets you with a friendly ‘Hi, how are you?’ You seat down and the computer reminds you of the schedule. You start the car. You now have a joystick, steering-by-wire. The old mechanical parts of the past are gone.

As you back out of your driveway, warning sensors warn you about objects and pedestrians in your way. Using voice commands you programme your route, check your emails and dictate answers, ask for local and international news, look up phone numbers and play music. The car also looks after your health. Sensors in your seat and armrest tell you your weight and blood pressure, while sensors in the dashboard notice if you are drowsy and vibrate the joystick to wake you.

Many of the old worries associated with driving are gone. Traffic jams don’t happen anymore because your car automatically avoids crowded roads. Collision avoidance sensors prevent accidents. Speeding tickets are also a thing of the past – sensors pick up signals from traffic signals and automatically adjust your speed or stop your car. And breaking down is no longer a problem. Your car diagnoses any potential faults or worn parts and warns you and the service station. When you arrive at the service station, the spare parts are already waiting for you. Your car can even park itself. Just stop at any parking space (your car knows if parking is permitted here) and operate the automatic parking system. The car scans the size and shape of the available space and then reverses in.

 

Text 18

1. Read and discuss the following famous words:

· The world is a book and those who do not travel, read only a page. (Saint Augustine)

· A man travels the world over in search of what he needs and returns home to find it. (George Moore)

· As machines get to be more and more like men, men will come to be more like machines. (Joseph Wood Krutch)

What effects does transport have on your neighborhood? Consider parking, pollution, congestion, safety, services that car needs. If you had a car would you give it up or limit its use in order to help the environment?

ALTERNATIVE VEHICLES

At the present rate of production oil supplies will run out rather soon, and we will have to look for other sources of energy. What kind of vehicle will then dominate? Nowadays car makers discuss four promising types of cars: fuel cell cars, electric cars, hybrid cars, and solar electric cars.

The electric car has a long history. The first electrical cars were built at the end of 19th century, but they could not compete against the internal combustion engine. Success of the electric car depends on light weight battery, capable of being recharged quickly, and the availability of electric energy. Several companies already sell electrics. For example, Solar Electric Engineering of Santa Rosa, California, offers Solar Electric's Destiny 2000 which includes an array of solar cells which provides a tiny bit of power and extends battery life. With its lightweight fiberglass body, it can travel 40 to 60 miles on a charge and cruises at 60-70 mph.

There are many different electric cars around the world. They are used for local deliveries, post offices and the services. But will the electric car ever become a universal means of transport? Today there are several hundred million cars in the world not to mention millions of motorcycles. It is estimated that if these changed over to electricity, they would require six million kilowatt hours, and all the power stations in the world now generate only a little over a third of that.

The hydrogen/air fuel cells look very hopeful. These do not have to be charged, they generate their own energy from a chemical reaction. They convert fuel energy to electrical energy with better than 80% efficiency. But at present the fuel cells prove too expensive. A hybrid system where electric batteries for city driving would be recharged in highway driving with gasoline fuel is an alternative to the totally electrical system.

The use of fuel cells promises a reduction in environmental pollution from car exhaust emissions and the end of our dependence on oil for fuel. A fuel cell produces an electric current and heat by converting hydrogen and oxygen into water. When many cells are combined into a stack, enough energy is produced to power a 50kW engine. The fuel cell has the highest efficiency in power generation, reaching over 60%, compared to a gasoline-powered car which has 20%. Pure hydrogen could be stored on-board the car, but this would use too much space. Alternatively, car makers could use reformer technology to convert gasoline or methanol into hydrogen, but this would reduce the efficiency of the cell.

There are many practical considerations for drivers. Fuel cell-powered cars are neither as fast nor as quiet as gasoline- or diesel-powered cars. At present there are very few hydrogen fueling stations, so refueling could be a problem. Fuel cell cars are very expensive to develop and produce, which means they will also be expensive for the customer. Many drivers will not pay extra for ‘green’ car technology. Nevertheless, the race is on to produce the first fuel cell-powered family car with CO₂ emissions of 90g/km.

 

6. Answer these questions:

a) What kind of vehicle will dominate in the nearest future?

b) What do you know about electric cars?

c) How does fuel cell technology work?

d) What are the advantages and disadvantages of fuel cell-powered cars?

e) How important do you think fuel cell cars are or will be?

f) Fuel cell cars are very expensive to develop and produce, aren’t they?

g) Would you buy a fuel cell car? Why or why not?

h) What do you know about new automotive technologies?

 

7. Make sure that you know these terms:

To put into mass production, to subject to tests, to meet up-to-date demands (require­ments), source of power, accessories, by means of, recharge, to trace the fault, fastening bolts, ……………….

 

8. Match these English phrases with their equivalents in Ukrainian:

A emission requirements, weight reduction, storage compartment, manually adjustable system, flyover, total vehicle emissions, base curb weight, auxiliary mechanism, rust, to recycle, air changeover, can of fuel, a reduction in environmental pollution, to reduce the efficiency.

B естакада, каністра з паливом, зменшення забруднення навколишнього середовища, переробляти, циркуляція повітря, гранична вага бази авто, вимоги щодо викидів, зменшення ваги, зменшити ефективність, відділення для запчастин, допоміжний механізм, сумарні викиди авто, механічно регульована система, іржа.

 

Text 19

According to the safety precautions it is necessary to keep your car in good condition and well-repaired. Complete this report by the car mechanic (M) to his supervisor (S). Act out the dialogue with your partner.

S: Have you checked the tires yet?

M: Yes, we’ve checked all the tires first thing this morning and we ______ (find) that the rear tire was worn. So we ______ (replace) it.

S: What about the tire pressures? Have you adjusted them yet?

M: Yes, we ______ (adjust) them when we ______ (put) the tires on. Then, at about 10 this morning, we ______ (examine) the fuel system. We ______ (take) it apart and ______ (unblock) the fuel pipe.

S: Good have you repaired the damaged paintwork on the door?

M: Yes, we ______ (strip) off the damaged paint just before lunch and then we ______ (clean) the door, ______ (repair) it and ______ (repaint) it.

S: W hat about the air conditioner? Have you checked it?

M: Yes, we checked it. Then we ______ (pump) some new fluid into the air conditioning system.

S: What about the oil leak under the car? Have you had time to look at that yet?

M: Yes, we ______ (do) that about an hour ago.

S: Thank you guys. You are the best.

A CAR SAFETY PROGRAMME

Good morning everyone. For those of you who don’t know me, my name is Gordon Waters. I’m here to talk about the New Car Assessment Programme (NCAP). First of all, I’m going to tell you something about the history of the NCAP. Then I’ll talk about its passive vehicle safety programme. There’ll be time for questions at the end.

So, firstly, let’s look at the NCAP’s history. It was founded in 1997 and brings me on to my next point – the passive vehicle safety in Europe and America. Its aim is to provide the customer with an opportunity to compare passive vehicle safety in different car models. Just so that everyone’s clear about the terminology, when I say passive vehicle safety, I mean those features used if an accident happens. Features which are used to avoid an accident are referred to as active vehicle safety. One important feature of the programme is tests themselves. As you can see in this side, the programme first tested vehicles in a head-on collision with a rigid wall at 64km/h. in this side-on crash, a 1.5m wide deformable barrier weighing 950kg is rammed into the side of the car at 50km/h. A vehicle can be awarded up to five stars, depending on how it performs in the tests.

Four dummies are used inside the car in the test. The driver and front passenger dummies not only measure the usual injury criteria, such as head, thorax, pelvic acceleration and thigh pressure, but also neck pressure, thorax deformation, knee displacement and lower leg pressure. At the rear are two smaller dummies in children’s seats. A further test assesses the injury risk for pedestrians. So, I think that covers everything about the tests.

 

Text 20

1. Find someone in your class who:

· Has a car with GPS navigation system and air conditioning;

· Has soft toys and cushions in the car;

· Needs plenty of legroom;

· Needs a big CD changer;

· Wants to have a cup holder in his/her car;

· Wants to have a TV set in his/her car;

· Doesn’t need sun visor;

· Doesn’t allow smoking in his/her car;

· Cleans his/her car every weekend;

· Has a lot of garbage in his/her glove compartment.

AIRBAGS

Until a short time ago, most of the progress made in auto safety was in front and rear accidents, even though 40% of all serious injuries from accidents are the result of side impacts and 30% of all accidents are side-impact collisions.

Many car makers have reacted to these statistics and new standards of the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) by making doors, door frames and floor and roof sections stronger. But cars that now offer side airbags represent a new type of occupant protection.

Engineers say that designing effective side airbags is much more difficult than designing front airbags. This is because much of the energy from a front-impact collision is absorbed by the bumper, hood, and engine, and it takes almost 30 to 40 milliseconds before the impact reaches the car’s occupant. In a side impact, only a relatively thin door and a few inches separate the occupant from another vehicle. This means that door-mounted side airbags must begin deploying within 5 or 6 milliseconds. It takes a collision of about 19kph to trigger side airbags.

The seatbelt airbag is intended to give back-seat passengers the same level of protection as front-seat occupants. The airbag is incorporated in the rear-seat seatbelt and inflates forward on impact.

Bosch has developed an airbag control unit with extended functional range for highly precise triggering of airbags and belt tensioners. According to the company, the system detects the impact speed of a frontal collision at a very early stage with the help of two ‘upfront’ sensors. The central crash sensor’s information ensures good decision precision. Depending on the type of accident, the occupant restraint system can be triggered either in one or two phases.

The new system has two acceleration sensors which transmit signals, from which the electronic control unit calculates early and precisely the energy absorption as well as the velocity of vehicle deformation. After only 15ms, it is clearly recognizable whether it will be a minor crash without the actuation of the airbag of a serious crash with triggering of the necessary passive safety system.

The side impact is detected by means of four side-impact sensors, the signals of which are checked for plausibility against those of the central sensors in the airbag. This concept ensures triggering of the side airbag for optimum protection of head and chest in a lateral collision.

Airbags, though, do not always save lives, they sometimes kill people who are too small or are in the wrong position when the airbags deploy. To prevent this from happening, car makers and suppliers are developing occupant-sensing systems. The three leading technologies for smart airbags are weight-sensing in the seat, position sensing within the car and camera monitoring. These detection systems can automatically deactivate the airbags if the situation is dangerous.

 

1. Answer the following questions:

1. Do you know anyone who has been saved by an airbag in an accident?

2. Which other safety features are car manufacturers working on?

3. Which features do you think will be developed in the future?

4. What do you remember about Bosch airbag control unit? How does it work?

5. How safe do you feel when driving your car?

6. Designing side airbags is more difficult than designing front airbags, isn’t it?

 

2. Make sure that you know these terms:

Auto safety, side impacts, side-impact collisions, occupant protection, door-mounted side airbags, to absorb, to deploy, to trigger, seatbelt airbag, level of protection, airbag control unit, extended functional range, to detect the impact speed, to transmit signals, to calculate, the energy absorption, velocity of vehicle deformation, actuation of the airbag, occupant-sensing system.

 

Prepare a short report or presentation to persuade your group mates that the model of car you like most of all is the safest in the world. Act out a meeting to negotiate automatic emergency braking, seat belts, airbags, ABS and other safety features.

Text 21

SENSORS AND THE AUTOMOBILE

In the 1960s, vehicles were equipped with oil pressure, fuel level and temperature coolant sensors. Their outputs were connected to analogue gauges or "idiot" lights. As we entered the 1970s and emissions became a driving factor, more sensors were added to help control the power train. With the addition of the catalytic converter, electronic ignition and fuel injection a number of sensors came required to help maintain tight air/fuel control and exhaust emissions. In 1980s, safety became a factor with anti lock brakes and airbags.

Today sensors are everywhere. In the power train area, sensors are used to measure the temperature and pressure of most of the fluids (air temperature, manifold absolute pressure, coolant temperature, and fuel injection pressure). Speed and position sensors are connected to most moving parts (vehicle speed, throttle position, camshaft, crankshaft, transmission shift position, valve position and transmission speed sensors). Others measure knock, engine load, engine misfire and oxygen level in the exhaust. Climate control requires the use of various sensors in the air conditioning system to determine refrigerant pressure and temperature and interior air temperature.

Sensors have been added to the interior to determine seat position. With the addition of anti lock braking and suspension control a number of sensors have been added to determine wheel speed, ride height and tire pressure. As airbags were added for frontal and side impact, more crash sensors and accelerometers were added to control airbag deployment. As the concern for front seat passengers has grown so has the need for sensors to determine if the passenger airbag needs to deploy.

Occupant position sensors, passenger weight sensors and others have been developed to ensure the correct deployment of the front passenger airbag. Other sensors are being added as car manufacturers add side impact bags, roof airbags and sophisticated side impact head protection airbags.

As engineers have moved beyond anti lock braking and traction control into electronic stability control, more sensors are required. Yaw rate, steering wheel angle and collision avoidance sensors, such as radar sensors or sensors to determine the proximity of other vehicles, will be added. Additional sensors to help control or determine lateral acceleration speed of each wheel and engine torque will be needed.

Control of the vehicle's braking system is tied into the stability control sys­tem. The first oil pressure and coolant temperature sensors were set up to work independently of each other. In fact some of them were nothing more than switches that were activated at certain maximum or minimum levels. As more sensors become electronic or digital, they are interconnected and their output is used for more than one vehicle system. Thus sensor manufacturers are searching for better ways to design and manufacture sensors.

 

2. Complete the sentences with the information from the text:

a) In the 1960s, vehicles were equipped with …………

b) In 1970s emissions became a driving factor and …………

c) In the power train area, sensors are used …………

d) Speed and position sensors are connected to …………

e) Climate control requires the use of …………

f) With the addition of anti lock braking and suspension control …………

g) ………… the correct deployment of the front passen­ger airbag.

h) Other sensors are being added as …………

i) Collision avoidance sensors, …………, will be added.

j) As more sensors become electronic or digital …………

 

3. Which instrument shows you:

· how fast the car is travelling? _________________________________

· warns you if the engine lubrication system gets too hot? ____________

· shows that you are indicating to turn left or right? _________________

· shows you how often the engine is turning over? __________________

· shows you how much petrol you have in the tank? ________________

· indicates the voltage of the car’s electrical system? ________________

4. Match each abbreviation with its meaning:

FWD	a) rear-wheel drive
bhp	b) grams per kilometer
GDI	c) miles per gallon
rpm	d) brake horsepower
RWD	e) front-wheel drive
SI	f) turbo direct injection
TDI	g) Gasoline Direct Injection
mpg	h) spark ignition
g/km	i) revolutions per minute
mph	j) miles per hour

 

5. Translate the following extract in written form:

 

Text 8

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

A car engine looks like a large block of metal. And it is. It is a large block of cast iron. In this block there are round holes. These holes are the cylinders. The cylinder block of a car usually has four or six cylinders. In the cylinder the power of petrol is controlled. In each cylinder there is a piston. It can move up and down inside the cylinder. Its shape is like the bottom half of a bottle. It has cast iron rings round it. These piston rings help it to fit tightly inside the cylinder. A connecting rod comes from inside the piston. The top of each cylinder is covered. There are three holes in the top. Two are for valves which open and shut. These are the inlet valve and the exhaust valve. The other hole is for the sparking plug. The sparking plug ignites (fires) the mixture of air and petrol by means of a spark and causes it to explode.

When the inlet valve opens, a mixture of air and petrol is sucked into the cylinder.

The mixture fills the space above the pistons. When the inlet valve is open the exhaust valve is closed.

Smoke and gases remain after the explosion of the petrol and air mixture. When the exhaust valve opens, the smoke and gases are pushed out of the cylinder.

THE FOUR-STROKE CYCLE

To complete the firing cycle the piston must move along the cylinder four times. These movements called strokes.

The suction (drawing in, intake) stroke.

In this stroke the piston is moving down the cylinder. The inlet valve is open. A mixture of air and petrol is drawn into the cylinder above the piston.

The compression (pressing together) stroke.

In this stroke the piston is moving up the cylinder. Both valves are closed. The piston moves up as far as it can. It pushes the mixture of air and petrol in front of it. It compresses it into the space above the cylinder.

The explosion (firing, power) stroke.

In this stroke, the spark fires the mixture and it explodes. The energy released by the burning mixture forces the piston down the cylinder.

The exhaust (emptying out) stroke.

In this stroke the piston is moving up the cylinder. The exhaust valve is open. Smoke and gases remain after the explosion. The piston pushes them in front of it. They are pushed through the exhaust valve opening. They leave the cylinder through the pipe. Now the cycle begins again.

a) Complete the sentences with the active form of the verb in brackets:

1. The company CAV ……… (never/to manufacture) 5 million engines a year.

2. She ……… (to be) to London four times. We ……… (to go) there by plain.

3. Our company ……… (to employ) over 1000,000, ……… (to operate) in many overseas markets and ……… (to offer) a wide range of hi-tech products for the 21^st century.

4. I’m afraid Mr Bansall can’t see you right now. He’s ……… (to interview) someone.

5. A: Is John feeling OK? He ……… (to look) very red in the face.

6. B: Yes, I know. I ……… (to look for) the doctor’s phone number now.

7. A: ……… (you/to have) a car?

8. B: Yes, but I …..... (to have) some problems with it, so it …..(to be) at the garage now.

Text 9

THE CARBURETOR

The carburetor has two main parts. There is a container (the chamber) which controls the flow of petrol. The pump forces the petrol through a pipe into the chamber. If the chamber is full, the float rises. This causes the needle valve to close. Petrol cannot enter. As the chamber empties, the float sinks. The valve opens. More petrol enters the chamber. There is also a choke tube. This tube is open at the top so that air can be sucked in. Pipes lead from the bottom of the tube to the inlet valves of the cylinders. The air and petrol mixture is sucked into the cylinder. This flow of mixture is controlled by a throttle valve. This is a round piece of metal like a large coin. It is moved by the accelerator pedal.

A small pipe leads from the chamber to the choke tube. The petrol flows through this. There are very small holes (jets) at the end of the pipe. As the induction stroke sucks air down the tube, it also sucks petrol through these jets. The petrol is broken up into thousands of very small drops to form a vapor. It mixes with the air. The mixture is sucked into the cylinders.

When the accelerator pedal is pushed down, the throttle is opened. More air is sucked into the carburetor. More petrol and air mixture goes to the cylinders. The explosions in the cylinders are stronger. The car goes more quickly. When the pedal is let out, the throttle closes. There is less mixture. The explosions are weaker. The car goes more slowly.

Translate the following text into Ukrainian in written form

The carburetor. Gasoline in its raw liquid form will not burn satisfactory to operate an internal-combustion engine. It must first be broken up into small drops, or atomized. After being atomized, the gasoline is vaporized and mixed with air in proper proportions for combustion. While these proportions vary slightly for different makes of engines, one part of gasoline to fifteen parts of air by mass is the average mixture used. The carburetor, therefore, is a device which automatically vaporizes and mixes the gasoline and air in the proper proportions necessary for starting, idling, acceleration, and power at various speeds.

 

2. Complete the sentences with the active form of the verb in brackets:

1. Every time we ……… (to buy) a foreign car we ……… (to put) someone else out of work. (Woodrow Wyatt)

2. Money ……… (to talk), they ……… (to say). All it ever said to me was “Goodbye”. (Cary Grant)

3. Politicians are the same all over. They ………. (to promise) to build a bridge even where there is no river. (Khrushchev)

4. In a hierarchy every employee ……… (to tend) to rise to his level of incompetence. (Laurence J. Peter)

5. While my father …… (to repair) his car last morning, my brother and I …… (to improve) the interior of it. Everybody …… (to like) our work.

6. I ……… (never/to have) any trouble with getting the car started.

7. Due to the establishment of new bus and city train routes the passenger service ……… (to be improved).

8. In spite of all my protests, Bill ……… (to go) home ten minutes ago.

9. My sister ……… (to lose) the ignition key. She can’t find it.

10. The temperature ……… (to be maintained) at the point of 20 degrees since the beginning of the experiment.

11. The new apparatus ……… (just/to be installed) in the laboratory. The delegation will arrive to check it in two weeks.

12. While using this type of equipment, they ……… (not/to receive) any good results this month.

13. Ann ……… (not/to want) to explore that lonely island as the trip ……… (to be) too dangerous and expensive.

Text 10

THE CRANKSHAFT

The piston goes up and down but the car wheels go round. So something must change the up-and-down movement. The connecting rod is connected to the piston. The connecting rod can swing from side to side. The big end is connected to a shaft (the crankshaft). The crankshaft can move round inside the big end. As the piston goes up and down, the connecting rod causes the crankshaft to go round.

When you ride a bicycle, your legs go up and down. The pedals and the chain wheel go round. The movement of the connecting rod is like your leg movement. So the connecting rod causes the crankshaft to go round. This circular movement goes through the gears to the car wheels.

THE CAMSHAFT

As the crankshaft turns, it turns another shaft. This is the camshaft. There is a wheel with teeth at one end of the crankshaft. This wheel is connected by a chain to a bigger wheel. This bigger wheel is at the end of the camshaft. So when the crankshaft turns, the camshaft turns too. The camshaft has cams for each cylinder. They open and close the inlet and exhaust valves on each cylinder.

The cams turn with the shaft. As the high part of the cam comes up, it pushes up a rod. This rod pushes up one of a lever (the rocker arm) the other end of the lever pushes down the valve and opens it.

On each valve there is a strong spring. As the lower part of the cam comes round, the spring forces the rocker arm up. This closes the valve. The turning of the shaft is set in a certain way. It makes the inlet and exhaust valves open and shut at the right time.

There is a gear wheel in the middle of the chamber of the camshaft. It does two things. It turns the distributor. It works the oil pump.

The camshaft turns the distributor. The distributor distributes electricity to the sparking plug. The sparking plug fires the petrol and air mixture in the cylinder, at the right time in the firing cycle. So the camshaft controls the firing cycle.

THE IGNITION SWITCH

The ignition switch is an electrical switch that turns the current off or on in the ignition circuit. It operates in the same manner as the light in your home. It is usually located on the instrument panel and is operated by a key, so that only the person who has the key can turn on the switch. The ignition switch, in addition to completing the ignition circuit, usually has additional terminals which complete the circuits to the instruments or warning lights (fuel, temperature, oil pressure, charging), to the accessories (heater, radio, etc.) and to the starting motor. The ignition, instrument, and accessories circuits are connected when the switch is turned to the accessories position. Only the starting circuit is connected when the ignition switch is in the start position.

 

Text 11

THE BATTERY AND COIL

The battery is used to store electricity. The electrical pressure (voltage) of a car battery is only 12 volts. When high voltage electricity jumps a space between two points it causes a spark. This happens in the sparking plug. A voltage of about 7,000 volts will cause a good spark. How do we get 7,000 volts from a 12-volt battery?

The coil does it. The coil is really two coils of wire: the primary coil and the secondary coil. The electricity (12 volts) from the battery flows through the primary coil. Suddenly stopping the flow to the primary coil causes a very strong flow in the secondary coil. The flow through the primary coil is stopped by the contact breaker.