The subjective construction with an infinitive

THE PREDICATIVE COMPLEXES

 

Predicative complexes (or constructions) are structures intermediate between a phrase and a clause. Unlike phrases they contain two words I which semantically are in subject-predicate relations to one another, as one (the nominal part) denotes the doer of the action or the bearer of the state or quality, while the other (the predicated part) may be either verbal (an infinitive, a participle, a gerund) or non-verbal (an adjective, a stative, an adverb, a noun). But unlike clauses the subject-predicate relations in complexes are not grammatically explicit, that is there is no finite verb-form in them, functioning as the verbal predicate or as a link-verb of a nominal predicate. Therefore complexes have neither real subject, nor real predicate.

Still as they have two parts with subject-predicate relations between them the complexes may be transformed into a clause, as in:

 

I heard him cry —— >I heard that he cried.

 

Other peculirities result from their structural features:

The fact that they are devoid of the finite verb form renders them dependent on the embedding sentence, and the very absence of the finite verb form is sufficient to show their dependent status as will be shown in the case of different constructions:

 

It raining cats and dogs, we stayed at home (adverbial).

It is for you to decide it (predicative).

I saw him cross the streat. (object)

 

But in most cases the dependent status of the construction is manifested by special structural devices of linking:

 

1. It may be overlapping (наложение) when the embedding sentence and the complex share a common element, as in the case of objective predicative complexes:

 

I saw him enter this door.

 

where him has a double role, referring formally to the predicate of the embedding sentence (I saw him) and referring semantically to the complex, as it denotes the doer of the action (he entered this door); in such cases the construction functions as one part of the sentence (a complex object).

In some cases overlapping is possible with verbs taking a preposition, then the latter is retained between the verb and predicative comples:

 

We listened to him talking to his neighbour.

 

2. It may be blending (слияние), when elements of two structures blend into one syntactical part, usually into а соmpound predicate of double orientation when two elements refer to different doers of the action, as in the subjective predicative construction:

He is supposed to have arrived already —> It is supposed (they suppose) that he has arrived already.

 

The first part of the predicate refers to an implied doer not expressed in the sentence, though formally it agrees with the subject he. The second part to have arrived refers to the doer expressed by the subject, though grammatically the reference is not expressed. The elements of the complex structurally make two parts of the sentence - the subject and part of the predicate of double orientation.

Predicative complexes comprise the following structures: subjective predicative construction, objective predicative construction, nominative absolute predicative constructions, for-to-infinitive constructions, gerundial complexes.

The first two constructions have permanent functions in the sentence, the functions of the last three may vary.

Due to the nature of the second part of the constructions (verbal or non-verbal) all the constructions (complexes) fall into two large classes:

1. verbal constructions and 2. non-verbal constructions.

I. Verbal constructions can be transformed into clauses with a verbal predicate:

 

We saw the storm approaching ——— > We saw that the storm was approaching.

 

It raining cats and dogs, we stayed at home. ——> As it was raining cats and dogs, we stayed at home.

 

The train is reported to have landed. ——— > lt is reported (They report) that the plane has landed.

 

II. Non-verbal constructions can be transformed into clauses too, but with a compound nominal predicate.

 

The door was painted green.——> The door was painted and it became green.

They elected him president.——> They elected him and he became president (and he is president now).

He stood there trembling with his face ablaze. ——> He stood and his face was ablaze.

 

Verbal constructions fall into two groups:

 

1. those containing an infinitive and 2. those containing a participle.

 

The infinitive constructions are:

the objective infinitive construction, the subjective infinitive construction, the for-to-infinitive construction

and the absolute nominative infinitive construction.

 

The participial constructions are:

the objective participial construction, the subjective participial construc­tion, the nominative absolute

participial construction and the prepositional absolute participial construction.

The subjective predicative constructions *

 

* It is traditionally called the Complex Subject. The other term often used the Nominative with the infinitive construction does not embrace all variants, as the second element may be not an infinitive.

The objective with participle I construction

 

This construction comprises a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case and participle I, which is in subject-predicate relation to the nominal part. In comparison with the infinitive in this position participle I shows more clearly the durative character of the action. The construction functions as a complex object.

 

§ 127. The objective with participle I construction can be used with verbs of three semantic groups, although with two of them it occurs very seldom. In all cases only non-perfect forms of participle I can be used. These groups are as follows:

1. Verbs of sense perception (see, hear, feel).

 

There we saw the crocodiles swimming about.

Over his shoulder he could hear them snuffing.

I felt tears running down my chieks.

2. Verbs of wish. These verbs combine with the construction only occasionally.

 

Nobody wanted him going there alone.

 

3. The causative verbs to have and to get.

 

He got them running his errands every day.

We’ll have them trembling with fear.

The objective with participle II construction

 

§ 128. This construction shows that the action expressed by participle II is (or was) performed not by the person denoted by the nominal part due to the passive meaning of participle II for most verbs. However after the verbs to have, to get, to want participle II may denote an action performed at the request of the person denoted by the nominal part.

The objective with participle II construction can be attached to verbs of four semantic groups.

1. Verbs of sense perception (to see, to hear, to feel, to watch):

 

We heard the door shut.

They watched him examined by the doctor.

I heard my name echoed in the distance.

2. A few verbs of mental activity (to think, to believe, to consider, to remember).

 

At first she thought Johnny killed.

3. Verbs of wish.

 

Nobody wanted it done in such a way.

4. The causative verbs to have and to get. With these verbs the construc­tion means that the action of

participle II is done for the benefit of the person expressed by the nominal part of the construction.

 

How do you think the men would have their wounds dressed, get themselves washed, have their beds

made if nobody worked on a Sunday?

 

The objective with participle construction attached to the verbs of this group cannot be transformed into object clauses because these verbs do not take object that- clauses.

THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE

§ 136. The composite sentence is a sentence consisting of two or more clauses. In its structure a clause is similar to a simple sentence, but unlike a simple sentence it forms part of a bigger syntactical unit.

Within a composite sentence clauses may be joined by means of coordination or subordination, thus forming a compound or a complex sentence respectively.

Coordination is a way of linking grammatical elements to make them equal in rank.

Subordination is a way of linking grammatical elements that makes one of them dependent upon the other (or they are mutually dependent).

 

1. The door of Henry’s lunch-room opened, and two men came in.

2. I have come to you, because I know from reading your accounts that you are Mr Sherlock Holme’s most

intimate acquaintance.

 

These sentences may be graphically presented in the following way:

 

1.	The door... opened	————and————	two men came in
2.	I have come to
	you because I know...
	that you are...

 

A compound sentence may contain coordinate clauses extended by subordinate clauses, and the resulting structure is a compound-complex sentence.

 

Pooh was very proud when he heard this, and he felt that Heffalump was as good as caught already, but

there was just one other thing which had to be thought about.

 

 

A complex sentence may contain subordinate clauses joined by means of coordination, the resulting structure being a complex sentence with homogeneous subordinate clauses.

 

I must impress upon you again that you are in a very great danger, and that the utmost frankness is

necessary.

 

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE

§ 137. A compound sentence consists of two or more clauses of equal rank which form one syntactical whole in meaning and intonation. Clauses that are parts of a compound sentence are called coordinate, as they are joined by coordination.

Coordinate clauses may be linked together with or without a connector; in the first case they are joined syndetically.

 

Yesterday I bought a penny fiddle

And put it to my chin to play,

But I found its strings painted,

So I threw my fiddle away.

 

in the second case - asyndeticaily:

 

Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall,

Humpty Dumpty had a great fall;

All the king’s horses, and all the king’s men

Cannot put Humpty Dumpty together again.

 

Syndetic coordination is realized with a number of connectors - conjunctions, such as and, but, or, nor, for, etc., or with conjunctive adverbs, such as moreover, besides, however, yet, still, otherwise, therefore, etc.

In writing coordinate clauses may be marked off by a comma, a semicolon, a colon or occasionally a dash. Sometimes they are not separated graphically at all. In speaking they are separated by pauses.

§ 138. The main semantic feature of the compound sentence is that it follows the flow of thought; thus the content of each successive clause is related to the previous one. Hence come two syntactical features of the compound sentence which distinguish it from the complex sentence.

The first is as follows. The opening clause mostly plays the leading role, and each successive clause is joined to the previous clause.

Note:

 

A sentence may begin with a coordinating connector, but in this case the whole sentence is joined to the previous sentence in the text.

 

The first time Mrs. Moffat invited him to watch television with her, Simon declined. He would rather

read, he said. So she gave him books, she gave him classics. But the books he craved were garden books.

 

The second feature is that the clauses are sequentially fixed. Thus a coordinate clause cannot change place with the previous one without changing or distorting the meaning of the whole sentence, as in:

 

It was pitch dark, for the fog had come down from London in the night, and all Surbiton was wrapped in

its embraces.

 

However the change is possible if the clauses contain description. The third feature is that coordinate clauses, either opening or subsequent, may belong to different communicative types.

 

You may go, but don’t be late for dinner! (declarative and imperative clauses)

I had to leave at once, for whatever else could I have done? (declarative and interrogative clauses)

§ 139. From the point of view of the relationship between coordinate clauses, we distinguish four kinds of coordinate connection: copulative, adversative, disjunctive and causative-consecutive. The type of connection is expressed not only by means of coordinating connectives, but also by the general meaning of clauses conveyed by their lexical and grammatical content. This accounts for asyndetic coordination and for various uses of the conjunction and, when it expresses other relations - that of contrast or consequence.

§ 140. Copulative coordination implies that the information conveyed by coordinate clauses is in some way similar.

The copulative connectors are: the conjunctions and, nor, neither... nor, not only... but (also), as well as, and the conjunctive adverbs then, moreover, besides.

And is the conjunction most frequently used to realize copulative coordination. It may suggest mere addition.

 

Then she went home and wrote Brody a thank-you note for being so nice, and she also wrote a note to the

chief of police commending young Martin Brody.

 

The events described in copulative coordinate clauses may be simultaneous or successive.

 

The black Cadillac made its hunting sound through the night, and the tyres sang on the slab, and the black

fields stretched with mist swept by. (simultaneity)

The front door to the house opened, and a man and a woman stepped out on the wooden porch.

(succession)

 

Occasionally the second clause may contain some commentary on the previous clause.

 

She was familiar with the petty social problems, and they bored her.

 

Owing to its vague copulative meaning the conjunction and may also link clauses with adversative or causative-consecutive connections. The meaning of the second clause is either contrasted to the first or contains its consequence.

 

Why were her own relations so rich, and Phil never knew where the money was coming from for to-

morrow’s tobacco?

 

In sentences beginning with a verb in the imperative mood, the first clause implies a condition for the fulfilment of the action in the second clause.

Take these pills, and you will feel better. (If you take...)

 

The conjunction nor joins two negative clauses.

 

I didn’t recognize the girl, nor did I remember her name.

 

The correlative pairs neither... nor, not only... but (also) express mere addition, sometimes with accentuation on the second clause.

 

I not only remembered the girl’s name, but I also knew everything about her family.

 

The conjunctive adverb then joins clauses describing successive events.

 

We went along the street, then we turned to the left.

 

Copulative connection may also be expressed asyndetically, the clauses so joined may describe simultaneous or successive events.

 

Our Elsie was looking at her with big imploring eyes; she was frowning; she wanted to go. (simultaneity)

 

§ 141. Adversative coordination joins clauses containing opposition, contradiction or contrast. Adversative connectors are: the conjunctions but, while, whereas, the conjunctive adverbs however, yet, still, nevertheless, and the conjunctive particle only. Adversative coordination may also be realized asyndetically. The main adversative conjunction is but, which expresses adversative connection in a very general way. The clause introduced by but conveys some event that is opposite to what is expected from the contents of the first clause.

 

The story was amusing, but nobody laughed.

But may join clauses contrasted in meaning.

 

The English system of noun forms is very simple, but the system of verb forms is most intricate.

 

The conjunctions while and whereas specialize in expressing contrastive relations.

 

Peter is an engineer, while his brother is a musician.

Some people prefer going to the theatre, whereas others will stay at home watching TV programmes.

 

Contrastive relation may be conveyed by asyndetic coordination.

 

Two or three scenes stood out vividly in his mind - all the rest became a blur.

 

Among coordinative connectives the particle only is frequently used to join clauses with adversative connection, mainly in colloquial English.

 

There was an electric light, only Arthur had not switched it on.

 

§142. Disjunctive coordination implies a choice between two mutually exclusive alternatives. The disjunctive conjunctions are or, either... or, the conjunctive adverbs are else (or else), otherwise.

 

You can join us at the station, or we can wait for you at home.

 

The correlative either emphasizes the exclusion of one of the alternatives.

 

Either listen to me, or I shall stop reading to you.

 

The clause introduced by or may express a restatement or correction of what is said in the first clause.

 

We were talking abouta lot of things, or rather he was talking and I was listening.

 

Coordinate clauses joined by disjunctive connectors may contain an implied condition, real or unreal.

 

Hurry up, or you will be late. (real condition implied) (If you don’t hurry, you will be late.)

 

If the first part is negative, the implied condition is positive.

 

Don’t be late, otherwise you may not be let in. (If you are late, you may not be let in.)

John is busy, otherwise he would be here. (unreal condition implied) (If John weren’t busy, he would be

here.)

John is busy, or he would have come. (If John were not busy, he would have come.)

John was busy last night, otherwise he would have come. (If he hadn’t been busy, he would have come.)

§ 143. Causative-consecutive coordination joins clauses connected in such a way that one of them contains a reason and the other - a consequence. The second clause may contain either the reason or the result of the event conveyed by the previous clause. The only causative coordinating conjunction is for.

 

The days became longer, for it was now springtime.

 

A causative clause may be also joined asyndetically.

 

At first I thought that they were brother and sister, they were so much alike.

 

The conjunction for is intermediate between subordination and coordination. It is most often treated as a coordinating conjunction, because its semantic application is to introduce clauses containing an explanation or justification of the idea expressed by the previous clause.

 

The land seemed almost as dark as the water, for there was no moon.

 

Sometimes the consequence may serve as a justification of the previous statement.

 

John must have gone, for nobody answers the call.

 

A for- clause differs from a subordinate clause of reason in that it never precedes the clause it is joined to. If a sentence begins with for, it means that the sentence is linked with the previous one.

 

When I saw her in the river I was frightened. For at that point the current was strong.

 

Consecutive connectives are conjunctions so, so that, and conjunctive adverbs therefore, hence, then, thus.

 

The weather was fine, so there were many people on the beach.

So that is a conjunction intermediate between subordination and coordination. When used after a comma in writing or a pause in speaking its connection with the previous clause is looser and it performs the function of a coordinating conjunction.

 

John is unlikely to come soon, so that we’d better go home.

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

§ 144. While coordination is a connection of two or more clauses of equal rank and function, subordination is usually defined as a non-symmetrical relation, that is, in a complex sentence with a minimal composition of two clauses, one is the basic element, whereas the other is a constituent or part of the first. The first one is called the main (or principal) clause, the second the subordinate clause.

In complex sentences with concessive clauses there is a contrast between the content of the main clause and that of the subordinate one: the action or fact described in the main clause is carried out or takes place despite the action or state expressed in the subordinate clause.

This type of clause is introduced by conjunctions: although, though, if; correlative conjunctions: though...yet, whether...or; conjunctive pronounsor adverbs: whoever, whatever, whichever, whenever, wherever (which may stand for almost any part of the sentence), as, or composite соnjunсtiоns: no matter how, no matter what, for all that, despite that, in spite of the fact, despite the fact, even if, even though, even when.

The abundance of means for expressing concessive relations is determined not only by the necessity to differentiate various shades of meaning, but also by the fact that different parts may form the focus of the concessive meaning:

 

Howevercynical he was – Сколь бы циничен он ни был..., Late as it was – Хотя было поздно..., как бы ни было поздно..., Try as he might – Как бы он ни старался..., хотя он и старался работать..., Whoever may come – Кто бы ни пришел...,

(The focus is the predicative.)   “-“-“     (The focus is the notional part of the predicate.)   (The focus is the subject.)

 

Compound conjunctive pronouns and adverbs (whoever, whenever, etc.) impart universal or indefinite meaning to the clause they introduce. Contrast the following sentences:

 

a) Whenever you come send me a note (any time when...).

 

b) When you come send me a note (the definite time when...).

 

There is some similarity between clauses of condition and concession. The difference lies in the fact that whereas conditional clauses state the dependence of one action or circumstance on another, concessive clauses imply a contrast or lack of dependence between them. Thus the following sentences with concessive clauses

Although the weather was bad, he went for a walk.

Although the weather was fine, he did not go for a walk (the second statement is surprising in the light of

the first),

 

may be rephrased using coordinate clauses joined by the contrastive but.

 

The weather was bad, but he went for a walk.

The weather was fine, but he did not go for a walk.

 

In complex sentences with a conditional clause the dependence has no contrast.

If the weather was fine he went for a walk. (The second statement results from the first.)

 

Note 1:

 

However, contrastive meaning is not characteristic of all types of concessive clauses. There are three types of concessive clauses, which differ in the relation they bear to the principal clause and in the way they are connected.

 

I. Clauses of admitted concession (придаточные уступительные со значением допущения).

Though there might be many obstacles to overcome, he faithfully believed in future.

Though all efforts fail, we shall never surrender.

Though war and danger were in store, war and danger might not befall for months to come.

 

Concessive clauses introduced by compound pronouns and adverbs in -ever are never adversative to the main clause in their content, as they suggest a choice from among a number of possibilities.

Whoever he may be, he seems to be an honest man at least.

Wherever you live, you can keep a cat.

Whatever your problems are, they can’t be worse than mine.

Whatever guests you invite, they are welcome.

 

Clauses of admitted concession may have inverted word order; inversion is possible both with the conjunctions though and as, which in this case occur in non-initial position (after the predicative), and with conjunctive words.

 

Josephine could always eat, however excited she was (though she was excited).

Dark as it was getting, I could still see these changes (though it was getting dark).

Miraculous though it seemed to be, there was no miracle in their survival (though it seemed to be

miraculous).

 

The connective however, besides being a linking element, functions also as an adverbial modifier of degree referring to the predicative (however excited she was).

Note 2:

 

Sometimes clauses concessive in form have a non-concessive meaning of cause or attendant circumstance.

 

The sergeant, fool as he was, couldn't see the point (because he was a fool, being a fool).

 

II. Clauses of open concession (придаточные уступи­тельные со значением гипотетического допуще­ния). Clauses of this type express an unreal condition, despite which the action in the principal clause is carried out. The predicate in the subordinate clause may be in the indicative or in the subjunctive mood (in the latter case the quasi-subjunctive forms with may and might are generally used).

Whatever may be the shortcomings and defects of the present treatment, it is vain to attempt to extenuate

or excuse them in a short preface.

However much advice you give him, he does exactly what he wants.

III. Clauses of disjunctive or alternative concession (придаточные уступительные со значением альтер­нативы). These clauses admit two possible alternatives, both of which may be unreal, or may refer to the future. As can be seen from the examples given below, the contrast between the principal and the subordinate clause or clauses is weaker, as there are two alternatives, neither of which can be considered as an acceptable condition.

 

“Coward!” he repeated. “Coward, am I? Then I'll be a coward, and you shall kiss me whether you will or

not!”

Pseudo-complex sentences

§ 179. We shall consider sentences consisting of two clauses joined according to some pattern of subordination, but different from other complex sentences in the relation the clauses bear to one another. There are several types of pseudo-complex sentences. In the first type the splitting of the sentence into clauses is a device for the sake of emphasizing this or that part of the sentence; actually the meaning of the sentence does not require splitting (or cleaving) into clauses. These sentences are called emphatic (or cleft) sentences.

THE PREDICATIVE COMPLEXES

 

Predicative complexes (or constructions) are structures intermediate between a phrase and a clause. Unlike phrases they contain two words I which semantically are in subject-predicate relations to one another, as one (the nominal part) denotes the doer of the action or the bearer of the state or quality, while the other (the predicated part) may be either verbal (an infinitive, a participle, a gerund) or non-verbal (an adjective, a stative, an adverb, a noun). But unlike clauses the subject-predicate relations in complexes are not grammatically explicit, that is there is no finite verb-form in them, functioning as the verbal predicate or as a link-verb of a nominal predicate. Therefore complexes have neither real subject, nor real predicate.

Still as they have two parts with subject-predicate relations between them the complexes may be transformed into a clause, as in:

 

I heard him cry —— >I heard that he cried.

 

Other peculirities result from their structural features:

The fact that they are devoid of the finite verb form renders them dependent on the embedding sentence, and the very absence of the finite verb form is sufficient to show their dependent status as will be shown in the case of different constructions:

 

It raining cats and dogs, we stayed at home (adverbial).

It is for you to decide it (predicative).

I saw him cross the streat. (object)

 

But in most cases the dependent status of the construction is manifested by special structural devices of linking:

 

1. It may be overlapping (наложение) when the embedding sentence and the complex share a common element, as in the case of objective predicative complexes:

 

I saw him enter this door.

 

where him has a double role, referring formally to the predicate of the embedding sentence (I saw him) and referring semantically to the complex, as it denotes the doer of the action (he entered this door); in such cases the construction functions as one part of the sentence (a complex object).

In some cases overlapping is possible with verbs taking a preposition, then the latter is retained between the verb and predicative comples:

 

We listened to him talking to his neighbour.

 

2. It may be blending (слияние), when elements of two structures blend into one syntactical part, usually into а соmpound predicate of double orientation when two elements refer to different doers of the action, as in the subjective predicative construction:

He is supposed to have arrived already —> It is supposed (they suppose) that he has arrived already.

 

The first part of the predicate refers to an implied doer not expressed in the sentence, though formally it agrees with the subject he. The second part to have arrived refers to the doer expressed by the subject, though grammatically the reference is not expressed. The elements of the complex structurally make two parts of the sentence - the subject and part of the predicate of double orientation.

Predicative complexes comprise the following structures: subjective predicative construction, objective predicative construction, nominative absolute predicative constructions, for-to-infinitive constructions, gerundial complexes.

The first two constructions have permanent functions in the sentence, the functions of the last three may vary.

Due to the nature of the second part of the constructions (verbal or non-verbal) all the constructions (complexes) fall into two large classes:

1. verbal constructions and 2. non-verbal constructions.

I. Verbal constructions can be transformed into clauses with a verbal predicate:

 

We saw the storm approaching ——— > We saw that the storm was approaching.

 

It raining cats and dogs, we stayed at home. ——> As it was raining cats and dogs, we stayed at home.

 

The train is reported to have landed. ——— > lt is reported (They report) that the plane has landed.

 

II. Non-verbal constructions can be transformed into clauses too, but with a compound nominal predicate.

 

The door was painted green.——> The door was painted and it became green.

They elected him president.——> They elected him and he became president (and he is president now).

He stood there trembling with his face ablaze. ——> He stood and his face was ablaze.

 

Verbal constructions fall into two groups:

 

1. those containing an infinitive and 2. those containing a participle.

 

The infinitive constructions are:

the objective infinitive construction, the subjective infinitive construction, the for-to-infinitive construction

and the absolute nominative infinitive construction.

 

The participial constructions are:

the objective participial construction, the subjective participial construc­tion, the nominative absolute

participial construction and the prepositional absolute participial construction.

The subjective predicative constructions *

 

* It is traditionally called the Complex Subject. The other term often used the Nominative with the infinitive construction does not embrace all variants, as the second element may be not an infinitive.

The subjective construction with an infinitive

 

§ 123. The construction consists of a noun (or a noun-pronoun) in the common case or a personal pronoun in the nominative case and an infinitive. The peculiarity of the construction is that the first element is separated from the second one by a finite verb-form which together with the infinitive forms a compound verbal predicate of double orientation, whereas the nominal part of the construction forms the subject of the sentence. Thus the construction does not function as one part of the sentence but falls into two parts each functioning separately.

Semantically of these two parts of the predicate only the second one refers to the subject, as only this part denotes either the action or the state of the person or non-person expressed by the subject. Thus in the sentence: He is said to know five languages it is the relation. He knows five languages that is important.

 

In between the subject and the infinitive there is a part of the predicate expressed by a finite verb which grammatically indicates subject-predicate relations. However, Semantically this finite verb cannot serve as the predicate of the subject, as it denotes some comment, or estimate, or judgement, or conclusion, or attitude to the action or state expressed by the infinitive. The comment or attitude comes from somebody not mentioned in the sentence, therefore such sentences can be transformed into complex ones with the indefinite-personal subject in the principal clause:

He is reported to have left. ————> They report (or somebody reports) that he has left.

 

The car was heard to turn round the corner. ——> They heard (somebody heard) that the car turned round

the comer.

 

The subjective infinitive construction is used with a limited number of finite verbs either in the passive or in the active voice:

 

I. Verbs used in the passive voice fall into four groups:

 

1) verbs of sense perception (hear, see, observe, watch, etc.). When used in the passive voice they are followed by a to-infinitive. They express the idea of evidence. The same idea is also rendered by some other verbs in the passive voice (such as find, discover).

 

He was seen to enter the building. (Somebody was a witness of this fact)

They were heard to quarrel. (Somebody heard them and therefore was a witness of their quarrel)

The boy was found to be sleeping at home. (Somebody found the boy and he was sleeping)

 

2) verbs of mental perception (think, know, mean, believe, expect, consider, assume, presume, suppose) With this construction these verbs denote different shades of expectation, opinion, judgement:

 

Pat was supposed to come with me tonight.

The Paliament is expected to introduce some changes into the laws.

Programmed instruction is considered to have many advantages.

 

3) verbs of saying and reporting (say, report, declare, predict, etc). These verbs also express some judgement or opinion:

 

Blackberries are said to have a lot of vitamins.

A new star was reported to have appeared in the East.

 

4) Causative verbs (cause, make, order, allow, etc.) The verb to make when used in the passive voice is followed by a to-infinitive.

 

Jule was made to repeat her words.

The doctor was ordered to change his shift.

No dam was allowed to be built in this part of the country.

 

II. The following verbs ace used in the active voice:

1. Verbs expressing subjective or personal attitude to facts and their evaluation (to seem, to appear, to happen, to chance, to turn out, etc.).

 

The structure seemed to have been properly designed.

Your friend turned out to be stronger than we expected.

Everybody appeared to be enjoying themselves.

He chanced to be in the park when I was there.

I was to tell you the news if I happened to run into you.

2. Modal phrases expressing different shades of probability or certainty (to be (un)likely, to be sure, to be certain, to be bound); also adjectives or nouns with the link-verb to be expressing estimate of different kind (pleasant, hard, easy, difficult, terrible, apt, etc.). As probability mostly implies a future action the non-perfect infinitive is generally used after to be likely. With modal phrases expressing certainty both non-perfect and perfect infinitives are possible. The modal phrases to be apt, to be bound generally refer to habitual actions or states and are accordingly followed by the non-perfect infinitive:

 

We are certain to come to an agreement.

You are not likely to believe my story.

A strawberry, unless fresh-picked, is bound to exude juice.

These objects are sure to be wanted as evidence.

He is always liable to do idiotic things.

A girl is apt to be a little nervous on her wedding day.

Chrisis is apt to strike suddenly like influenza.