Д. Ю. Коновалов, ст. Преп. Каф. Безоп. Технол. Процессов и производств агту, кандидат С. -х. Наук

Древесина,

Ее свойства

И применение

 

 

Учебно-методическое пособие

и задания по английскому языку

 

 

Часть I

Архангельск

Рассмотрено и рекомендовано к изданию методической комиссией

Факультета механической технологии древесины

Архангельского государственного

технического университета

 

 

Составители:

Т.Н.Истомина, ст. преподаватель;

И.В. Мананкова, ст. преподаватель

 

Рецензенты:

М.А. Калинина, зав. кафедрой иностранных языков АГТУ, канд. пед. наук, доцент

Е.В. Гурьева, ст. преп., зав. секцией англ.яз. кафедры иностранных языков АГТУ

 

Д.Ю. Коновалов, ст. преп. каф. безоп. технол. процессов и производств АГТУ, кандидат с.-х. наук

 

УДК: 811.111 (075)

+ 630 * 81 (075)

ББК 81.2 АНГЛ – 92

+ 37.11 я 75

 

Истомина Т.Н., Мананкова И.В. Древесина, ее свойства и применение: учебно-методическое пособие и задания по английскому языку. Часть I, 2-е изд., переработанное и дополненное – Архангельск:

АГТУ, 2009. – с.59

 

Учебно-методическое пособие разработано на кафедре иностранных языков АГТУ. Составлено в соответствии с программой курса «Английский язык для технических специальностей высших учебных заведений» по материалам из английских и американских монографий, журналов, газет, изданных в России и за рубежом.

Предназначено для аудиторной и самостоятельной работы студентов I курса факультета механической технологии древесины всех специальностей.

 

© Архангельский государственный

технический университет, 2009

© Т.Н. Истомина,

И.В. Мананкова

Unit 1

	Word building. There + be. Degrees of Comparison. Functions of it, one, that. Noun as an attribute.

Grammar:

 

 

The Material for the Future

 

Wood is an extremely valuable resource. This unique material plays an important role in the life of people. It is so important that life of mankind is hardly possible without it. People began to use it many, many years ago as fuel, shelter, weapons for protection from wild animals and to get food.

Wood is widely available and is relatively easy to handle and convert into products. Wood provides us with a large variety of products and demand for wood continues to increase.

Timber is a more "environmentally friendly" building material than all the other materials presently available. There are a number of reasons for this:

· It is a natural building material which our forests give to us. Trees absorb solar energy from the sun and with the use of water, carbon dioxide and chlorophyll as a catalyst, convert it to cellulose (wood). This conversion process results in the release of oxygen and purification of the atmosphere.

· Timber is a renewable resource. It exists in nature in unlimited quantities. It is capable to meet our needs now and in the future.

· Timber is reusable. It is easy to work with and does not involve the use of a lot of energy in comparison to other materials. This means that over its "lifetime" a piece of timber can have many uses.

· Timber is biodegradable. It does not damage the environment. When it returns to the environment it enriches it with nutrients.

· It is energy-efficient. When we convert wood from raw material to a usable product we see that timber is very energy-efficient. It is the most efficient in its conversion process among any other comparable building material. One study revealed that the production of a ton of timber requires only 435 KW hours of electrical energy whereas that of steel needs 3780 KW hours and that of aluminum requires 20,169 KW hours.

· Timber is the best natural insulator for our buildings. It helps to keep them warmer in winter and cooler in summer. Its superb insulating properties mean that less non – renewable fuel is needed for heating and cooling.

 

 

· Timber reduces the Greenhouse effect. Forests help to reduce the level of greenhouse gases in our atmosphere because they use and store carbon to make woody tissue and leaves. This helps to purify our air.

The community in general is conscious of our natural environment and the need to use it wisely for the benefit of all. Timber provides society with a variety of uses and environmental advantages. It is indeed the material for the future.

 

General understanding

 

Read the text attentively and answer the following questions:

1. How did people use wood in prehistoric times?

2. Why does the demand for wood continue to increase?

3. Is timber a more environmentally friendly material than all the other materials available?

4. Why?

5. Can timber meet our needs now and in future?

6. Does timber damage the environment?

7. How much energy does the production of a ton of timber require? Is it more or less than the production of steel and aluminum?

8. What do the superb insulating properties of wood mean?

9. How does timber influence the greenhouse effect? Does it reduce or increase it?

10. Do forests reduce the level of greenhouse gases in our atmosphere?

11. What is the community conscious of?

 

Vocabulary

 

Exercise 1. Match the English words in A with their Russian equivalents in B.

 

A B.

1. wood a. ценный

2. valuable b. снабжать, обеспечивать

3. handle с. спрос

4. provide d. возрастать

5. demand e. двуокись углерода

6. increase f. древесина

7. carbon dioxide g. транспортировать

8. convert h. возобнoвляемый

9. renewable i. существовать

10. exist j. превращать

 

Exercise 2. Find the English equivalents in the text to the following Russian.

 

Большое разнообразие продуктов; спрос на; приводить к чему-либо; удовлетворять нужды; по сравнению; годный к употреблению продукт; парниковый эффект; знать (осознавать); на благо всех.

 

Exercise 3. Choose the words from the text which have the similar meaning.

 

to transport; to process; to grow; to require; to discharge; to meet requirements;

to lower; to be aware of; profit; ecologically friendly

 

Exercise 4. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box.

 

	oxygen; nutrients; wood; renewable; enrich; demand; converted; requires; advantages; wisely; purify; carbon dioxide.

 

 

1. Our life is impossible without _______.

2. Wood can be _______ into many usable products.

3. Trees absorb _______ _______ and enrich the air with ________.

4. Absorbing carbon dioxide trees _______ the atmosphere.

5. ________ for wood continues to grow.

6. When trees die they ________ the soil with nutrients.

7. The conversion of timber into usable products _______ little energy.

8. Timber is a ________ material because it can restore itself without man's help.

9. It is necessary to use our natural environment _______ for the benefit of all.

10. Timber has got many ________over other materials.

 

Grammar

 

Exercise 1. Find the basic word in the following word – combinations and translate them into Russian.

 

low quality timber; plywood moisture content; high quality boards; maximum surface area; average – size commercial logs; particle board production increase; wood – processing plants; wood chip size; forest management costs.

 

Exercise 2. Make the right choice.

 

1. timber service life

а) срок годности строевого леса

б) строевой лес на службе

в) служба жизни строевого леса

 

2. freshly cut pine wood

а) свежая вырубка сосновой древесины

б) свежесрубленная сосновая древесина

в) рубка свежей сосновой древесины

 

3. standard sizes particle boards

а) ДСП стандартных размеров

б) стандартные размеры ДСП

в) размеры стандартных ДСП

 

4. freshly sawed pine lumber

а) сосна, распиленная на свежие материалы

б) свежая распиловка сосновых пиломатериалов

в) пиломатериалы из свежераспиленной сосны

 

5. wood deterioration principal causes

а) главные причины ухудшения качества древесины

б) ухудшение главных причин качества древесины

в) принципы, вызывающие ухудшение качества древесины

 

Exercise 3. Look through the list of words and group them into 4 categories: nouns, verbs,adjectives, adverbs.

 

valuable; comparison; production; electrical; protection; widely; variety; enrich; insulator; purify; community; wisely; renewable; wasteless; straightness; relatively; purification.

 

Exercise 4. Translate into Russian, paying attention to suffixes and prefixes.

 

renewable; unlimited quantities; reusable; biodegradable; enrich; usable products; purify; purification; valuable; extremely; conversion, comparison, comparable, consumption; straightness, wasteless.

 

Exercise 5. Fill in the correct word derived from the words in bold using suffixes and prefixes.

 

1. The (convert) of timber into (use) products does not require much energy.

2. Wood is (wide) available all over the world.

3. Prehistoric men used wood for (protect) from wild animals.

4. Wood provides us with a large (vary) of products.

5. Our life is (possible) without wood.

6. Man chose timber most (suit) for his purposes.

7. For arrows (straight) of grain was important.

8. Timber can be used for (construct) of houses, boats and furniture.

9. Forests (rich) the environment with oxygen.

10. New (waste) technologies are used nowadays when producing wood products.

 

Exercise 6. Translate into Russian. Pay attention to the construction "there + be"

 

1. There are several theories about how sapwood is transformed into heartwood.

2. There is a great variation in moisture content between species.

3. There are over 600000 ha of Sitka spruce in the UK.

4. In most species there is usually a marked difference in the moisture content of sapwood and heartwood.

5. There are certain purposes for which heavy woods are definitely unsuitable.

6. There exist different kinds of spruce in the world.

7. There appeared new methods of drying wood.

 

Exercise 7. Express the same in English.

 

1. Существует растущая тенденция к лесовосстановлению.

2. Нет сферы человеческой деятельности, которая не нуждается в строевом лесе.

3. В лесах нашей области есть различные породы деревьев.

4. Существует большее разнообразие среди лиственных пород, чем хвойных.

5. Появились новые методы для производства композиционных (composite) материалов.

6. Есть ученые, которые полагают, что региональные загрязнители воздуха могут оказывать прямое воздействие на деревья через листья и стволы, и косвенное воздействие через почву.

7. Существует несколько способов предотвращения порчи древесины.

 

Exercise 8. Express the same in Russian. Pay attention to the functions of "it, one, that".

 

1. One should know the physical and chemical properties of wood.

2. The precise control of moisture content is one of the most important aspects of processing timber.

3. The conductivity of green timber is much higher than that of dry wood.

4. It is necessary to remember that the bulk of moisture in most softwoods is contained in sapwood.

5. Dry wood is a poor conductor of electricity but it becomes a partial conductor when it contains moisture.

6. It is generally recognized in Europe that the growth and yield of silver birch is greater than that of downy birch.

7. Trees form wood in their tall stems to support their crown of foliage and to supply their leaves with sap. It is this dual purpose that makes wood such a fascinating material to use, study and admire.

Exercise 9. Form the comparative and superlative degrees.

 

valuable; rich; poor; bad; important; early; adaptable; little; resistant; good; much; simple; far; available.

 

Exercise 10. Use the adjectives in brackets in the comparative or superlative degree.

 

1. Canada is one of the (large) suppliers of paper and wood products.

2. The (important) property for timber in fencing is durability.

3. The (high) the density of spruce, the (stiff) the board.

4. Knots are the (common) type of defect in timber.

5. Downy birch is ecologically (flexible) than silver birch but it is (productive).

6. The (light) the wood the (good) are its insulating properties.

7. (Many) of dense woods are very durable.

8. Timber is a (ecologically pure) material than all the other materials presently available.

9. Walnut is one of the (valuable) species.

10. Heartwood is (hard) and (strong) than sapwood.

 

Exercise 11. Compare the two objects using "as…as"; "not so …as"; "the …the"; "as well"; "as well as".

 

1. Wood is _______ (important) _______ metals.

2. The (much) we study wood, the (much) we admire it.

3. Wood requires _______ (much) energy for its processing _______ metals.

4. Wood is used for construction purposes and for home needs _______.

5. Roots take water _______ mineral salts from the soil.

6. Sapwood is _______ (strong) _______ heartwood.

7. The strength properties of wood _______ its workability are of equal importance.

8. The (thick) the cell walls, the (high) the density of wood.

 

Speaking

 

Speak about:

1. The role of wood in the life of people.

2. The main properties of wood as an "environmentally friendly" material.

 

 

Unit 2

	Modal verbs. Participles I, II.

Grammar:

 

 

Nature and Origin of Wood

 

Wood is a material that forms the trunks and branches of trees. Timber is wood cut from the trunk which can be used while constructing houses, boats, furniture and so on. The word "lumber" is used in the United States to signify sawn and worked timber.

As there are many thousands of different kinds of trees in the world so there is a great variety of woods, ranging from the very light such as balsa to woods so heavy that even being dry they sink in water. Man had to learn to choose those timbers most suitable for the purpose in hand. A tough wood was needed for his spears, for his bows elasticity was essential, while for his arrows straightness of grain was important. He learned from experience which timbers could endure in the soil and which could be fashioned into boats.

In some northern countries where only a few kinds of tree grew the choice of wood was very limited. In tropical forests, on the other hand, the choice was bewildering, and so, as trade between countries developed, timbers were exported from the places where the trees grew to other countries that had no forests or lacked the particular kinds of wood required. Valuable ornamental woods such as ebony and sandalwood had to be carried great distances to adorn houses and furniture of the wealthy.

Until fairly recent times wood and charcoal made from it were the principal fuels used for cooking and heating. And this is still true in some countries.

Traditionally woods are classed either as "softwoods" which means woods

 

from coniferous trees that bear needles or as "hardwoods" meaning those from

the broad-leaved trees. The woods from conifers are in fact softer than those from broad-leaved trees and this was in general true of the timbers of Europe where the spruces and pines yield timbers that can be easily cut and nailed, while broad-leaved trees such as oak and beech produce harder and heavier woods.

Trees grow upward by elongation of the terminal shoots until they reach their maximum height. At the same time their girth increases by the addition each

year of a layer of new growth below the bark. The form that the mature tree develops depends very much on its surroundings. The way trees are grown can thus affect the timber that can be obtained from them and the forester attempts to grow trees that will provide the kind of timber the timber merchant will require.

When a tree is felled the butt end is stouter than the upper end since for many years the tree grew in girth at the butt. The taper of the log again depends on the way in which the tree grew. The less the degree of taper the more long straight planks will the saw miller be able to obtain from it.

 

General understanding

Read the text attentively and answer the questions:

1. What is wood?

2. What is timber?

3. What does lumber signify?

4. How did man choose among a great variety of woods?

5. What did man learn from experience?

6. Where were timbers exported?

7. How are woods classed traditionally?

8. What is the difference between "softwoods" and "hardwoods"?

9. What is the difference in properties of these two classes?

10. What can affect the timber that can be obtained from trees?

 

Vocabulary

 

Exercise 1. Match the English words in A with their Russian equivalents in B.

 

A. 1. trunk 2. timber 3. furniture 4. saw 5. lumber 6. suitable 7. fuel 8. softwood   9. hardwood 10. coniferous

B. 1. мебель 2. пилить 3. ствол 4. хвойный 5. подходящий 6. мягкая древесина 7. твердая древесина 8. пиломатериалы 9. строевой лес 10. топливо

Exercise 2. Find the English equivalents in the text to the following Russian.

 

разнообразие; тяжелый; выбирать; текстура; широколистные деревья; хвойные; мягкий; сосна; ель; резать; вбивать гвозди; дуб; бук; высота; диаметр (окружность) дерева; слой; кора; спелый (зрелый); валить (дерево); бревно.

 

Exercise 3. Choose the words from the text which have the similar meaning.

 

texture; to withstand; to shape; to transport; rich; fir; to produce; increment; ripe; give; produce; to cut; diameter; board.

 

Exercise 4. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box.

 

 

1. Freshly cut wood contains a lot of excess water and therefore is very __________.

2. When wood is used as __________, 90 per cent of its value is lost.

3. The __________ protects the tree from harmful fungi and insects.

4. Wood is easily ___________ with tools and machines.

5. The conditions of the growth of the tree ___________ the properties and structure of wood.

6. Wood has a wide variety of ___________ pattern, colour and density.

7. Raw materials from which ___________ is produced are logs.

8. The enlargement of the trunk in ___________ is brought about by the activity of the cambium.

9. One hectare of ____________ forest annually sucks in 30 tons of dust.

10. Most of the British forests lie in the uplands where virtually all of them are _________.

 

Grammar

 

Exercise 1. Translate into Russian. Pay attention to the modal verbs and their equivalents.

 

1. Wood is able to absorb moisture from the atmosphere. 2. Forestry in Europe has to demonstrate sustainability by providing wildlife habitat. 3. We must take care of our forests because our timber resources are not inexhaustible.

4. Scientists can establish facts of air pollution with great accuracy. 5. Durability of timber depends on the conditions under which the timber is to be used. 6. The site for air drying of timber should be level, well-drained ground. 7. Timber is to be stacked with stickers as soon after sawing as possible. 8. Absence of smell is important for any wood that is to be used for packing food-stuffs. 9. Wood may be attacked by insects and fungi.

 

Exercise 2. Put the sentences with modal verbs into:

a) Past and Future Tense

b) negative and interrogative form

 

1. They must replace the old equipment at the sawmill.

2. We can use wood for a large variety of products.

3. Scientists have to study the properties of different species.

4. Pine may be used for doors, kitchen tables, banks and stools as its knottiness is an allowable defect.

 

Exercise 3. Fill in the gaps with modal verbs and their equivalents from the box.

 

will have to, should, have to, will be unable to, could, mustn’t, can, must, did have to, may.

 

 

1. Ancient people __________ use wood for fires, shelter and weapons. 2. Under these conditions you __________ to grow a sound tree. 3. One __________ follow the rules when drying wood. 4. You __________ to change the conditions of the growth of trees. 5. It ________ be noted that timber grows in importance. 6. __________ the scientists ___________ to study the properties of timber? 7. We __________ use wood in damp conditions. 8. Looking at the cross section of any tree you __________ determine its age. 9. We __________ know that the conduction of heat through wood is a matter of great importance. 10. Pine __________ be used for doors, kitchen tables, banks and stools as its knottiness is an allowable defect.

 

Exercise 4. Define the functions of Participle I in the given sentences and translate them into Russian.

 

1. Growing trees contain a great deal of water. 2. The removal of moisture from wood when drying involves considerable difficulties. 3. In air-seasoning the rate of evaporation depends largely on the prevailing weather conditions. 4. There are over 600000 ha of Sitka spruce in the UK, comprising 27 per cent of the total area under coniferous forests. 5. High temperature destroys fungi existing in the wood. 6. There are hundreds of species of tree possessing different properties.

7. Being available in large quantities this fibrous material was used in the manufacture of pulp. 8. Taking into account the effect of their action fungi can be distinguished in two types. 9. Wood-destroying fungi strongly affect the mechanical resistance of timber. 10. When comparing different machines or machine grading

and visual grading the cost efficiency and speed have to be taken into account.

Exercise 5. What is Past Simple and Past Participle of the following verbs? Some are regular and some are irregular.

 

	Past Simple	Past Participle
to obtain to find to produce to grow to cut to dry to grind to fell to saw to shrink

 

Exercise 6. Compare the word-combinations with Participle I and Participle II.

 

growing trees humidifying agent polluting substances examining teacher discussing students

- grown trees - humidified air - polluted water - examined student - discussed article

 

Exercise 7. Define the functions of Participle II in the given sentences and translate them into Russian.

 

1. Density of wood is the dry mass contained in a volume of wood. 2. The density of wood used affects the strength properties of the paper produced. 3. Wood is a versatile building material that can last indefinitely when used wisely. 4. The type of the kiln selected will depend on the output of seasoned timber required. 5. In British Forestry Sitka spruce is the most widely planted species. 6. Observations made indicated that the best quality birch in Ireland occurs in the south-east of the country. 7. Quality is the resultant of physical and chemical characteristics possessed by a tree. 8. If properly used and protected wood can have a long life. 9. Wood is dried to the required moisture content in specially constructed kilns. 10. Timber was used for construction purposes in prehistoric times.

 

Exercise 8. Choose the right participle.

 

1. The damage (caused, causing) by insects and fungi can be very great. 2. When (drying, dried) wood loses its moisture. 3. (Piling, piled) lumber one should take into account the air movement through the pile. 4. The (drying, dried) wood is resistant to decay. 5. When (placing, placed) in damp condition wood can swell.

6. The investigations (carried out, carrying out) are of great importance. 7. The boards (piling, piled) with air spaces between the boards dry faster than the boards (placed, placing) edge to edge. 8. Furniture (manufacturing, manufactured) of ash creates a feeling of light and joy in the room. 9. The (treated, treating) wood is sufficiently resistant to the agents of deterioration. 10. The researchers obtained good results while (studying, studied) the properties of wood.

 

Speaking

Speak about:

1. The difference between timber, wood, lumber.

2. Softwoods and Hardwoods.

3. The choice of timber utilization by man.

 

Unit 3

	Passive Voice Indefinite Tenses

Grammar:

 

Timber

 

Timber is one of the most important materials used in all branches of industry. Most of the houses in which we live are partly built of timber: they all have wooden floors, wooden doors and wooden window frames.

Artificial textiles are manufactured from cellulose, a substance produced from the woody fiber of plants. Several medicines are obtained from different trees whose medicinal nature is widely known to modern chemists.

Timber was widely used for construction purposes and home needs in prehistoric times. We are told by archeologists that things made of wood were used over 3,500 years ago. Timber was referred to as the best structural material by Greeks and Romans who applied it for construction purposes and whose engineering skill is often spoken about in special literature.

A scientific study of the properties and qualities of wood was started only at the beginning of the 18-th century. The first researches were devoted to the study of the strength of timber. As a result, a considerable amount of data was

 

collected giving an idea of the properties of different kinds of timber. The researchers paid much attention to studying the conditions of the growth of the tree. The connection between the mechanical properties and the structure of timber was established and proved.

Being available in large quantities this fibrous material was used in the manufacture of pulp more than a century ago. Pulp was used for the production of paper and for making different kinds of artificial fibers. At first spruce was the chief source of pulp manufacture. Nowadays for this purpose pine is used alongside with spruce.

It should be noted that timber grows in importance. Using new methods and technologies branchwood, slabs, off-cuts and sawdust are not rejected nowadays. They are turned into plastics, wood sugar, alcohol, lignin, fuel. Solid residues such as edgings, trimmings, shavings and the like are adaptable as a raw material for further conversion. Various types of fiberboards and particle boards, composite materials and reconstituted wood products are manufactured and widely used. The possibilities of utilization of residues vary broadly from country to country and from region to region, depending on the size, structure, location and diversity.

 

General understanding

Read the text attentively and answer the questions.

1. Why is timber one the most important raw materials?

2. What are artificial textiles manufactured from?

3. What is cellulose?

4. How are trees used in medicine?

5. Was timber used in prehistoric times?

6. What countries were the first to apply timber for construction purposes?

7. When was a scientific study of wood started?

8. What properties were studied first?

9. What was established and proved as a result of research work?

10. What was wood used for as a fibrous material?

11. Does timber grow in importance?

12. What products and materials are manufactured from wood nowadays?

 

Vocabulary

Exercise 1. Match the English words in A with their Russian equivalents in B.

 

A. B.

1. manufacture 1. применять

2. construction 2. доступный

3. apply 3. прочность

4. property 4. строительство

5. quality 5. рейки

6. strength 6. обрезки

7. available 7. отходы

8. edgings 8. доступный

9. trimmings 9. производить

10. residues 10. качество

 

Exercise 2. Find the English equivalents in the text to the following Russian.

 

ветка (отрасль); искусственный; волокно; цель; исследования; значительный; количество; данные; условие; рост; связь; источник; сосна; ель; опилки; сырье; древесностружечные плиты; древесноволокнистые плиты; использование.

 

Exercise 3. Choose the word from the text which has the similar meaning.

 

to produce; building; aim; to use; durability; amount; fir; to convert; wastes; broadly; use (n.); variety.

Exercise 4. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box.

 

 

1. Pulp is _______ used for making _______. 2. Woodworking _______ provide an excellent type of fuel. 3. ________ is a wood panel manufactured from small pieces of wood such as flakes, slabs, cuttings. 4. As timber is produced by nature _______ properties are highly variable. 5. Particle boards are very popular with _______ industry. 6. Different ________ of timber can be used to satisfy different uses and ________. 7. Wood is a natural resource that is widely ________ throughout the world. 8. Timber and wood products are generally safe in use and cause very little effect on the _______. 9. The _______ of timber are mainly determined by its structural composition.

 

Grammar

Exercise 1. Compare the sentences.

 

1. He asks – He is asked.

He asked – He was asked.

He will ask – He will be asked.

2. He told them an interesting story.

He was told an interesting story.

 

 

3. They will show a new film tomorrow.

They will be shown a new film tomorrow.

 

4. The engineer sent for the documents.

The engineer was sent for when the delegation arrived.

 

Exercise 2. Choose the correct verb form: active or passive.

 

1. Wood (forms; is formed) during spring and summer seasons. 2. Wood (composes; is composed) of carbon compounds. 3. Primitive people (used; were used) wood for tools and weapons. 4. As the tree grows sapwood (turns; is turned) into heartwood. 5. Some kinds of wood (attack; are attacked) by insects, especially beetles causing great damage. 6. Decay also (reduces; is reduced) the density of the wood. 7. Exterior woodwork (can protect; can be protected) against weathering by coating with paint. 8. The paint film on exterior woodwork (must renew; must be renewed) regularly. 9. The use of timber (depends; is depended) on its physical properties in the first place. 10. Decay (brings; is brought) about by the action of fungi and bacteria. 11. The sharp toothed metal saw (used; was used) in Britain before the coming of the Romans. 12. In Northern Europe logs (convert; are converted) into boards by frame saws.

 

Exercise 3. Choose the right voice (active, passive) and put the verb in the correct tense.

 

1. The traditional cottages in Russia (to build; to be built) of solid logs. 2. Many timber merchants of the past (to deal; to be dealt) in softwoods imported from the Baltic. 3. Particle boards (to produce; to be produced) from particles of wood such as chips or sawdust under pressure. 4. We (to use; to be used) walnut for decorative purposes. 5. Wood (to use; to be used) for the production of paper more than a century ago. 6. Great attention (to pay; to be paid) to conditions of the growth of the trees. 7. The first researchers (to pay; to be paid) great attention to the conditions of the growth of the tree. 8. The trunk of any tree (to cover; to be covered) by the bark. 9. The outer covering of the tree (to call; to be called) the bark.

 

Exercise 4. Translate from Russian into English.

 

1. Лесопильный завод реконструировали два года назад. 2. Процесс удаления влажности называют сушкой. 3. Древесину сушат в специальных Каме-

рах до требуемой влажности. 4. На скорость сушки пиломатериалов влияет способ штабелевки досок. 5. Древесину необходимо обрабатывать антисептиками. 6. На бирже (log yard) бревна должны быть окорены, рассортированы и отправлены в цех на распиловку. 7. На лес ссылались как на лучший

строительный материал греки и римляне.

Speaking

 

Speak about:

1. The wide use of timber in our life.

2. The use of timber in prehistoric times.

3. A scientific study of wood.

4. The use of wood residues.

 

Unit 4

	Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect Tenses Active Voice

Grammar:

 

 

Wood formation

 

Wood is a fascinating natural material to use, study and admire. From the very earliest times man has used wood for tools and weapons, buildings, furniture, or just as fuel for his fires. Nowadays wood serves very many purposes too. As a matter of fact, it is adaptable to both structural and decorative use.

But it is impossible to use valuable qualities of wood without gaining some knowledge of the structure and chemical composition of this material. Being a representative of the woody plants a tree has three main parts: roots, a stem and leaves.

A stem or a trunk has always been of the greatest value in the manufacture of wood products. The trunk has an outer covering called the bark which protects the wood from extremes of temperature, mechanical injury and harmful fungi and insects.

Between the bark and the wood there is a thin delicate tissue known as cambium. This tissue produces both the bark and the wood. The enlargement of the trunk in girth is brought about entirely by the activity of the cambium.

The production of wood and bark tissue occurs only when the cambium is growing. In temperate regions this occurs during the spring and summer months. During this period of time leaves in the tree's crown have to work hard. They are winning carbon dioxide from the air and transforming it into the new carbon

 

 

compounds the wood is composed of.

The roots are working hard as well. To supply the tree with mineral salts needed for its life processes the roots are carefully exploring the soil under the tree. All this time sap is actively flowing from the roots up the stem.

No wood is formed during autumn when the rhythm of growth slows down, nor in winter when the tree rests. Many trees are leafless at that time of the

year. New cells produced due to the activity of the cambium form layers of wood

called sapwood. The function of sapwood is to carry sap. A tree is getting older, slow chemical changes are taking place in its inner layers. As a result, sapwood is turned into heartwood.

Heartwood is harder and stronger than sapwood. In the majority of timbers heartwood is more resistant to decay. Therefore it is desirable to exclude the use of sapwood in situations where the likehood of fungi infection is considerable.

 

General understanding

Read the text attentively and answer the questions.

1. What purposes did ancient people use wood for?

2. Does wood serve many purposes nowadays?

3. Why is it necessary to know the structure and composition of wood?

4. What part of the tree is of the greatest value in the manufacture of wood products?

5. What is the function of the bark?

6. Where is cambium located?

7. When does the production of wood and bark tissue occur?

8. Why are the roots carefully exploring the soil under the tree?

9. What is the function of sapwood?

10. What is heartwood?

Vocabulary

 

Exercise 1. Match the English words in A with their Russian equivalents in B.

 

A. B.

1. purpose 1. сок

2. quality 2. покрытие

3. covering 3. ткань

4. protect 4. цель

5. fungi 5. сердцевина

6. tissue 6. слой

7. supply 7. качество

8. sap 8. грибки

9. layer 9. защищать

10. heartwood 10. снабжать

Exercise 2. Find the English equivalents in the text to the following Russian.

 

инструменты; мебель; состав; представитель; листья; механические повреждения; нежная ткань; обхват (диаметр); происходить; почва; камбий; устойчивый; значительный.

Exercise 3. Choose the words from the text which have the similar meaning.

 

primitive times; houses; ornamental; obtain; constitution; coating; damage; take place; consist of; provide; ground; conduct; convert; possibility; immune.

 

Exercise 4. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box.

 

	protects; supply; tissue; roots; lumber; trunk; girth; strength; soil; layer.

 

1. The timber user is interested primarily in the _______.2. The trunk is the main part of any tree from which _______ is produced. 3. The bark _______ the delicate cambium from many kinds of possible harm. 4. Environmental conditions have a significant effect upon _____ of wood. 5. With proper management there is a potential for an endless _______ of timber and other wood – based materials. 6. The _______ of the trees increases by the addition each year of a ______ of new growth below the bark. 7. The ________anchor the tree in the ground and take in water and mineral salts from the _______. 8. The wood of trees consists of two kinds of _______,the rings and the rays.

Grammar

Exercise 1. Compare the predicates.

 

1. My mother cooks well.

She has just cooked soup.

Now she is cooking meat.

 

2. He made an experiment yesterday.

He was making the experiment from 5 till 7.

He had already made the experiment when I came.

 

3. He will write a letter tomorrow.

He will be writing it at 2 o'clock tomorrow.

He will have written it by 3 o'clock tomorrow.

 

 

Exercise 2. Choose the right form of the predicate.

 

1. Scientists (have started; started; were starting) to study timber in the 18-th century.

2. Timber (was grown; is grown; grows) in importance.

3. The roots (works; have worked; are working) hard exploring the soil under the tree.

4. The bark (protects; is protecting; has protected) the tree from insects and fungi.

5. As the tree grows slow chemical changes (took place; are taking place; will take) in the inner layers.

6. The annual area of afforestation in Ireland (declines; is declining; has declined) in recent years.

7. The country (manufactures; are manufacturing; has manufactured) 5000 different types of wood products every year.

8. You should not forget that important processes (are taking, takes, has taken) place in the crowns of the trees.

 

Exercise 3. Put the verb into the required tense form.

 

1.Wood not (to decay) under water. 2. Some years ago the manufacturers (to use) only spruce for the production of pulp. 3. Experience of many years (to show) the advantages and disadvantages of wood. 4. Wood (to swell) if put in damp conditions.5. Recently engineers (to develop) new methods of wood treatment. 6. Researchers (to carry out) much experimental work before the properties of wood were determined. 7. This enterprise recently (to introduce) the up-to-date technology to increase the output. 8. The trees (to stop) growing because of the harmful insects attack. 9. After we (to count) the annual rings we learned the age of tree. 10. The fire – brigate (to fight) the forest fire for two hours.

Speaking

Speak about:

1. The main parts of any tree and their functions.

2. Sapwood and heartwood.

 

Unit 5

	Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect Tenses Passive Voice

 

Grammar:

Wood as a Raw Material

Wood has always been and still remains one of the most important natural raw materials necessary to man.

Wood has a wide variety of grain pattern, colours and densities. It is easily worked with tools and machines. Unlike many materials, wood is resistant to mild chemicals and insulates against electricity and heat. Indeed, the air inside its cellular structure makes timber the best thermal insulator of all known building materials. That is why wood is widely used in construction and furniture making,

in making refrigerators and cooking utensils.

On the other hand wood can burn. It can be attacked by insects and fungi. It shrinks and swells with changes in humidity.

There are many ways of avoiding deterioration of wood. It can be impregnated with preservatives to guard against biological attack. Flame retardants can protect wood from fire. Chemicals can also be applied to avoid shrinking and swelling. Mechanical and chemical treatment of wood gives products of much higher strength than the wood itself. Fibreboards and particles boards are good examples of such products.

The amount of waste in woodworking industry is several times less than that in mining and metallurgy. Energy requirement for processing wood are also lower. It takes about 1500 kilowatts hours of electricity to produce a ton of sawn timber while the production of the same weight of aluminium requires energy 45 times as much.

Nowadays wood is still often used as a fuel. When wood is burnt we lose 90 per cent of its value. Therefore much research efforts have been made and are now being made to make this useful material accessible for other purposes. New methods of processing wood are being investigated, new ways of getting valuable products out of it are being introduced.

General Understanding

 

Read the text attentively and answer the following questions:

1. Does wood still remain one of the important raw materials? Why?

2. Why is wood widely used as a building material?

3. What makes wood the best thermal insulator?

4. What are the disadvantages of wood?

5. How can deterioration of wood be avoided?

6. What can increase the strength properties of wood?

7. What other advantages of wood as a raw material are mentioned in the text?

8. Is wood still used as a fuel?

9. Is it rational to use wood as a fuel? Why?

10. What is done to make this valuable raw material accessible for other purposes?

Vocabulary

 

Exercise 1. Match the English words in A with their Russian equivalents in B.

 

A 1. raw material 2. grain 3. density 4. insulator 5. resistant 6. shrink 7. swell 8. deterioration 9. subject 10. humidity

B 1. устойчивый 2. подвергать 3. сырье 4. плотность 5. усыхать 6. влажность 7. изолятор 8. текстура 9. ухудшение, порча 10. разбухать

 

Exercise 2. Find the English equivalents to the following Russian.

 

разнообразие; обрабатывать; клеточная структура; мебель; гореть; грибки; насекомые; пропитывать; антисептик; защищать; огнестойкая добавка; отходы; количество; переработка; требовать; терять.

 

Exercise 3. Choose the words from the text which have the similar meaning.

 

figure; diversity; weak; heat insulator; cabinet making; durability; to permeate; to use; to prevent; quantity; needs; available.

 

Exercise 4. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box.

 

1. The history of ________ goes back to about 8 000 B.C. when people first used an ax as a woodworking ________. 2. Hardwoods have beautiful _______ and can be used to make furniture. 3. Woodworking use a wide variety of ________

 

to ________ wood and to bring out the beauty of the grain. 4. Wood swells if

placed in _______ atmosphere. 5. Hardwood or softwood can be used to make ________. 6. Plywood consists of an ________ number of thin _______ of wood glued together. 7. Different _________ spoil the appearance of wood without affecting ________ properties. 8. Experience of many decades has shown the ________ and _______ of wood as compared with other ________.

 

Grammar

 

Exercise 1. Choose the right form of the predicate.

 

1. The heat from the sun ________ for thousands of years to dry timber.

 

a) are used b) was being used

c) is using d) has been used

 

2. The boards ________ before they were shipped.

a) have been inspected b) had been inspected

c) are being inspected d) were inspected

 

3. Wooden objects thousands of years old ________ from Egyptian tombs.

 

a) have been recovered b) had recovered

c) was being recovered d) recovered

4. Wafer board _______ a popular plywood substitute ideal for outdoor uses.

 

a) become b) are become

c) had become d) has become

 

5. A great number of reconstituted wood materials ________ on the market of wood-based materials in the nearest future.

 

a) have been appeared b) appeared

c) will appear d) were appeared

 

6. All species of wood _________ by their properties.

 

a) are distinguished b) distinguish

c) will be distinguished d) have distinguished

 

7. The Finnish plywood industry, famous for its high quality products ________ small diameter logs as a prime raw material resource.

a) is being used b) uses

c) is used d) will have used

 

8. New processing techniques for making composite materials ________ now.

 

a) are being worked out b) are worked out

c) have worked out d) will work out

 

9. The band saw _________ during the second half of the 19-th century.

 

a) was developed b) had been developed

c) has been developed d) was being developed

 

Exercise 2. Put the verb into the required tense form.

 

1. Wood ________ still _________ as fuel (to use). 2. The air-conditioning system (to install) in our office now. 3. The new technology of producing lumber recently (to work out) in Scandinavian countries. 4. The trees (to shelter) the early people from wind. 5. The piece of wood (to cut and shape) by the machine-tool. 6. The air in the workshop (to purify) by 2 ventilators during the experiment yesterday. 7. Wood natural durability tests (to perform) on different species for a long time all over the world. 8. The volume of mechanically graded lumber (to increase) by nearly 25% over the past 4 years. 9. Paints (to apply) to the wood surface and do not penetrate the wood deeply. 10. Even after wood (to season) down to the desired moisture content its placement into humid atmosphere caused the new increase of moisture content and swelling.

 

Exercise 3. Translate into English using different tense forms.

 

1. Старые традиционные методы сушки древесины все еще используются во многих странах. 2. Скорость сушки пиломатериалов зависит от того как уложены (to stack) доски. 3. Различные грибки портят внешний вид древесины. 4. Бревна подверглись (to attack) воздействию грибков и насекомых, т.к. не были вывезены из леса сразу же после валки. 5. Было обнаружено, что теплопроводность древесины очень низкая (heat conductivity). 6. После того как были проведены многочисленные эксперименты, ученые установили зависимость электропроводности древесины от её плотности и вида (породы). 7. При должном управлении древесина никогда не перестанет служить человеку. 8. Древесину используют с древних времен. 9. Разрабатываются новые методы переработки древесины. 10. Большое количество материалов из реконструированной (reconstructed) древесины появилось на

рынках сбыта.

 

Speaking

Speak about:

1. Properties of Wood.

2. Shortcomings of wood.

3. Measure to avoid deterioration of wood.

Unit 6

	Sequence of Tenses.

Grammar:

 

General understanding

Read the text attentively and answer the following questions.

1. When did our ancestors know about the significance of trees?

2. How did Druids treat the forest?

3. What did they do in the forest?

4. Were the Druids astrologists?

5. What could they invoke?

6. What did Druids liken people and their characters to?

7. Is a tree a philosophy? Why?

8. How is forest viewed today?

9. What does man have to protect nature from?

10. What is the trend today?

 

 

Vocabulary

 

Exercise 1. Match the English words in A with their Russian equivalents in B.

 

A. B.

1. link 1. недостатки

2. significance 2. пень

3. feature 3. связывать

4. drawbacks 4. особенность, черта

5. stump 5. преобразовывать

6. protect 6. защищать

7. preserve 7. сохранять

8. transform 8. значение, важность

9. diminish 9. уменьшать, убавлять

 

Exercise 2. Find the English equivalents to the following Russian.

 

древний; тесно; уходить; проводить время; предвидеть; определять; сравнивать; человек; достоинства; заставлять; источник; рассматривать; признавать; в первую очередь; с другой стороны; в отличие от; постоянно.

 

Exercise 3. Choose the words from the text which have the similar meaning.

 

primitive; importance; connect; for example; go away; predict; compare; shortcomings; consider; in the first place; main; constantly.

 

Exercise 4. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box.

 

 

 

1. People have used wood for construction purposes since ________ times. 2.

The ________of wood as indispensable raw material ________ with every year. 3. Druids drew analogy between people and _________ and composed horoscopes. 4.Each species has its _______ and ________. 5. The sound ________ of western red cedar can stay in the forest for several centuries. 6. Looking at the stump left after the tree had been felled you may _________ the age of this tree. 7. Timber is a ________ material, as it can restore itself without man’s help. 8. Wood is indispensable ________ for various ________ of our economy. 9. Our aim is to _________ forests from their enemies.

 

Grammar

Exercise 1. Find 4 sentences in the text where the "Sequence of Tenses" is observed.

 

Exercise 2. Put the verb of the principal sentence into the Past Indefinite Tense and make the necessary changes as in model.

 

Model: Hob says his friend is a woodman.

Hob said that his friend was a woodman.

 

1. The students wonder what people were the first to use wood. 2. The speaker stresses that the best way to preserve timber is to keep it dry. 3. Scientists come to the conclusion that the strength properties of wood depend on its structure. 4. The investigations show that wood was one of the earliest materials used for construction. 5. Students want to know if there is a more important raw material than wood. 6. The professor asks the students where they will work after graduation from the University. 7. The students want to know if wood is a homogeneous or heterogeneous material. 8. Specialists wonder how the parts of a tree apart from a stem can be used. 9. The archeologists tell us that things made of wood were used 3500 years ago. 10. The students are told that this s