Lecture 2. The Functional Aspect of Speech Sounds

 

In actual speech we utter a much greater variety of sounds than we are aware of; in everyday language these sounds are united in a comparatively small number of sound types, which are capable of distinguishing the meaning and the form of words – that is they serve the purpose of social intercourse. It is these sound types that we have in mind when discussing speech sounds. Such sound types are called phonemes.

The various speech sounds that we actually utter are called phonemic variants or Mophones. It means that is speech we pronounce, for instance, not only t – forelingual, apical, plosive, voiceless, fortis sound, but a greater variety of this “sound type”:

“twice” – rounded

“teeth” – with spread lips

“try” – post-alveolar

“eighth” – dental

Another example: positional length of vowels

bee – bead – beat

Vowel phonemes change not only in quantity but also in quality: in “beak” i: is more back than in “bee”, under the influence of back k.

The number of sound types, or phonemes, in each language is much smaller than the number of sounds, 34 cons. 6 vowels; in English – 45, 24 – cons, 21 – vowels; French – 32 – 17 cons, 15 vowels; Finnish total – 21; cons – 13, 8 – vowels.

Phonemic variants, or allophones, are very important for practical teaching because they are pronounced in actual speech and though their mispronunciation does not always influence the meaning of the words, their misuse makes a person’s speech sound as “foreign”.

That variant of the phoneme which is described as the most representative and free from the influence of the neighboring phonemes is considered to be typical or principal.

Allophones can be positional and combinatory. Positional allophones are used in certain positions traditionally. E.g. [1] phoneme is always “clear” in the initial position and “dark” in the terminal position. Combinatory allophones appear as the result of assimilation, adaptation, accommodation, that is – when one phoneme influences another.

e.g. [t] is a rounded combinatory allophone of the /t/ phoneme in the word “twice”.

 

Definition of Phoneme

 

There are different opinions on the nature of the phoneme and its definition among swlars. Russian linguist I.A. Baudonin de Courtenay viewed phonemes as fictitious units and considered them to be only perceptions. Ferdinand de Saussure (France) viewed phonemes as the sum of acoustic impressions and articulatory movements. Trubetskoy (the Prague Linguistic School) defined the phoneme as a unity of phonologically relevant features. D. Jones head of the London School of phonology, defined phonemes as a family of sounds.

The phoneme theory in America was elaborated by the so called structuralists L. Bloomficld, E. Sapir and others who define the phoneme as a minimum unit of distinctive sound-features, an “abstractional fiction”.

Academician Shckerba’s definition of the phoneme: it is a real independent distinctive unit which manifests itself in the form of its allophones.

Prof. Vassilyev in his book “English Phonetics. A Theoretical Course” writes that a phoneme is a unity of 3 aspects: (1) material, real and objective,

(2) abstractional and generalized,

(3) functional.

In speech the phoneme serves to perform 3 functions:

(a) constitutive

(b) distinctive

(c) recognitive (see Lecture 1 – (previous)

The phoneme is material because it really exists in the form of speech sounds, allophones.

The phoneme is an abstraction – it is not any definite d – sound, for example, but an abstractional language unit, which exists in the form of its allophones.

The phoneme is functional, because it functions to make one word or its grammatical form distinct from the other, it functions because it constitutes words and because due to the fact that it really functions we recognize words (even though they are not pronounced properly).

Each phoneme manifests itself in a certain pattern of distribution. The patterns of distribution may be different. The simplest is free variation.

That is the variation of one and the same phoneme pronounced by the same or different speakers, e.g. the pronunciation of the phoneme k with different degrees of aspiration which doesn’t affect the differentiatory properties of this phoneme.

Complementary distribution is another pattern of phoneme environment, when one and the same phoneme occurs in a definite set of contexts in which no other phoneme ever occurs. In other words, if the same sound occurs in different environments, it is supposed to be one phoneme which manifests itself in the form of different allophones. Different phonemes can occur in identical context which is not the case with allophones.

Sounds are in contrastive distribution when we find them in contrasted pairs: said – sad, pit – peat, bed – bad, take – cake.

Here we can observe contexts which are the same but for one sound phoneme.

Phonemes are discovered by the method of minimal pairs, or by distinctive oppositions. This method consists in finding as many pairs of words as possible which differ in one phoneme.

The substitution of one sound for another is called commutation test (коммутационная проверка). If such substitution results in the change of meaning, the commuted sounds are different phonemes.

The method of distinctive opposition enables one to prove whether the phonemic difference is relevant or not.

e.g. t – is a forelingual plosive occlusive voiceless for this phoneme:

d – is also a forelingual plosive occlusive, but a voiced lenis phoneme.

So, for t-d the only relevant distinctive features are: voiceless fortis vs. voiced lenis. Other features are irrelevant.

Depending on the number of relevant distinctive features oppositions can be:

1) single

2) double

3) multiple

Example of double opposition: in the pairs pie – die, pail – dale, pry – dry.

There are 2 distinctively relevant features:

1) voiceless fortis vs. voiced lenis

2) labial bilabial vs. lingual forelingual alveolar

The /b – h/ phonemes in the pairs be – he, bit – hit, bait – hate

Are characterized by 3 distinctively relevant features and only one distinctively irrelevan feature.

 

b h

voiced lenis ^{___________________________________________________} voiced fortic

labial bilabial ^{___________________________________________________} pharyngal

occlusive noise unicentral ^{___________________________________} constrictive noise unicentral

This is an example of a multiple opposition.

 

 

Lecture 3. English Consonants as Units of the

Phonological System

 

Sounds can function as units of language only if they differ from one another. Mutually distinctive sounds are called phonemes. As has been pointed out the main method of establishing phonemes of a given language is the commutation test or discovery of minimal pairs through which the phonetic status of each sound is established.

When in a contrastive pair one consonant phoneme is opposed to any other consonant phoneme in at least one position, this pair is called minimal. For example, in the minimal pair “pen – Ben” the phoneme /p/ is opposed to the phoneme /b/ due to the presence and absence of voice; it is the only distinctive feature of this minimal pair. All the other features of the pair pen – Ben are irrelevant. If there are more than one distinctive features in a pair, it is called sub – minimal.

For example, the pair treasure – pressure is sub – minimal, because the opposition is due to:

(1) the presence and absence of voice in the - ∫ phoneme, (2) forelingual articulation of the /t/ phoneme and bilabial articulation of the /p/ phoneme. All the other features are irrelevant. Minimal pairs occur in identical environments, sub – minimal – in similar environments.

Distinctively irrelevant features can be of 2 types:

- incidental, which may or may not be present in a phoneme;

- and such without which the phoneme can’t exist.

e.g. Palatalisation is phonemically irrelevant incidental in English and relevant in Russian: мат – мать.

Classificatory principles (listen in Lecture 3) provide the basis for the establishment of the following distinctive oppositions in the system of consonants of the English language.

 

Work of the Vocal Cords

 

Voiceless vs. voiced

Pen-Ben ten-den coat-goat

This opposition is simultaneously based on fortis - lenis distinction