Disability issues in post conflict Sierra Leone and The United Kingdom: a comparative analysis

 

Abstract: the article focuses on cultural differences in perception of disabilityconcept in Sierra Leone and in the UK.

Keywords: disability, perception, disabling environment.

 

There are cultural differences in perception of disability concept in Sier-ra Leone and in the UK. For this reason, when disability became a visible and necessary social phenomenon after the civil conflict, it was too much for both the state and the individuals to relate to. The cultural understanding of disabil-ity cannot explain the current prevalence and the effect on families. The pur-pose of this dissertation is to further investigate areas of research already con-ducted within the country with regards to the rights of People with disabilities (PWD), the disabling environment they find themselves and how this is affect-ing their inclusion into the daily life of their communities. This document will in particularly discuss access to health and education for PWD. Over 20 aca-demic journals regarding disability matters in Sierra Leone were critically ana-lyzed in addition to other publications from international organizations with health and social care agenda and with working experience in Sierra Leone.

 

It is estimated that there are more than half a billion-people living with one form of disability or the other in the world today (Priestley, 2001). The United Nations estimates that about 10% of the world population have sub-stantial disability, 80% of these people live in the developing world or the “Global South” (Groce, 1999). It can, therefore, be deduced from these statis-tics that most people with disabilities live in the poorest parts of the world. If poverty, therefore, is a major cause of exclusion, then being disabled and liv-ing in the poorest part of the globe compounds the exclusion (Trani, 2011). It is the intention of the researcher to investigate through literature reviews how disability issues are handled in a rich and developed nation like England as compared to Sierra Leone, a former colony of UK and among the poorest countries in the world (Zampaglione, 2009).

 

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The UN Convention of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) gives persons with disabilities in many countries some constitu-tional rights for the first time. Sierra Leone, for example, had her first disabil-ity legislation in 2011 after adopting the UNCRPD.

 

Disability and all its associated disadvantages and abuses came to prom-inence in Sierra Leone at the end of the civil war in 2004. Now, physically disabled people, mostly amputees (victims of the war), became visible in the streets. Their presence has been troubling to those who regard them as “public nuisances” and “troublemakers”. In addition to this, the government of the day (The democratically elected All Peoples Congress Party) had no functioning system in place to either assist PWD or create awareness and educate the peo-ple about disabilities.

 

Definitions. The diverse understanding of what disability is or whatmakes a person disabled coupled with cultural interpretations make a unified definition of disability difficult to ascertain (Priestley 1999). That said, it is worth looking at the definition provided in the Sierra Leone’s Persons with Dis-ability Act, 2011 which defines it as: “a physical, sensory, mental or other im-pairments which has substantial long-term adverse effect on a person’s ability to carry out normal day-to-day-activities”. This is like the definition spelt out in the UK’s Equality Act 2010. Per this act, one is said to be disabled; “if you have a physical or mental impairment that has a substantial and long-term negative effect on your ability to do normal day-to-day activities (gov.uk, 2015).

 

Both definitions are similar although they apply to two different coun-tries in two different continents with diverse world views.

 

Another key word worth defining is ‘impairment. This word is men-tioned in both definitions. Burke (2008), explains that disability occurs when limitations are imposed mainly by social structures that restrict an individual’s ability to participate or access all aspects of his/her community life.

 

Impairment, on the other hand, focuses on the individual, reflecting on the type of functional differences when comparing one person to another (Burke, 2008). In Sierra Leone PWD are both disabled and impaired. There is no equal opportunity in such societies for access.

 

Methodology. This is a secondary research through literature review.Literature review helps in identifying a research question, answer the ques-tions and critically analyze relevant literature (Aveyard, 2016, 16). Literature review is “the comprehensive study and interpretation of literature that relates to a particular topic” (Aveyard, 2010). This method is particularly appropriate

 

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for this research in that it provides a summary of all available literature on the topic. Since disability in Sierra Leone is not a vastly researched topic, the lit-erature review will include some grey literature, government of Sierra Leone publications, the Sierra Leone Gazette, Current and relevant cuttings from Si-erra Leone newspaper and statistical documents from The World Health Or-ganization and the World Bank. In addition to this, the university’s academic library web also serves as a source of information.

 

To avoid an overload of unwanted literature, it is advisable that the re-search question is concise and unambiguous (Porter and Carter, 200,18). In this research, the question must do with disability rights in Sierra Leone as compared to England. The key words derived from this question are:

 

Disability, disabilities, access *disability rights* impairment and Sierra Leone.

Literature Search. During the process of literature review, one exam-ines the worth or credibility and value of information that can be extracted from the available research evidence (Aveyard, 2010, 15). Therefore, all litera-tures accessed during the research were critically analyzed and evaluated to ascertain that they meet the inclusion/exclusion criteria.

 

Findings. Common themes in the literatures used for this research are:

 

Barriers confronted by PWD in accessing health care and education. Cross (1999) discusses the barrier of cultural misconception of disability, which fosters sigma and put obstacles in the way of PWD as they try to access public services. To remove these barriers, Sierra Leoneans need to rethink dis-ability, which requires some form of education and more research.

 

Inefficiency on the part of para-state organizations to implement the Persons with Disability Act 2011. This is a popular observation within the in-ternational community by organizations such as WHO (2016), HI (2010-2011) and African Human Development 2 (2009). These organizations, during their research referred to the nonchalant attitude of government officials toward matters relating to PWD.

 

Lack of funds to make access possible. The extent of poverty in Sierra Leone is discussed in almost every research document relating to disability in the country. Trani (2011, 1478) and Burghs (2006, 2010 and 2011) refer to funding or the lack of it as one of the thorns in the path of disability access. Kwassi (2010, 9) blames the lack of “means” as the main cause for the mar-ginalization of PWD while Magnusson (2012, 2111–2118) refers to limited re-sources in the country.

 

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Corruption within the political and social systems. The lack of funds and the misappropriation of donated funds mean that PWD will be the worst hit. The disadvantages of corruption are a popular theme in most of the jour-nals referenced. Zampaglione and Ovadiya (2009, 2, 25) believes that it is one of the challenges that the state must deal with to ensure that funds are allocated appropriately. It is almost a consensus among academic writers that corruption affects access to national resources within the society irrespective of the ability or disability of the citizens.

Cultural, traditional and religious beliefs that impede social and medi-cal understanding of disability. Traditional, cultural and religious views are deeply rooted in the psyches of indigenous Sierra Leoneans. Kwassi (2010, 14-20) and Groce (1999, 756–757) acknowledged this.

 

Integration versus segregation: Issues of participation. This is a matter of inclusion. Almost all journals referred to in this piece of work refer to the social, political and economic benefits of an all-inclusive society. Brittain (2011) writes about the benefits of all-inclusive sports not only for the PWD but also for society. Irvine (2015, 25) also mentioned the health and economic benefit of including CWD in education reforms while Kwassi (2010, 31) dis-cusses the right of PWD to participate in the economic activities of the coun-try. Zingale and McColl (2006, 247–248) refer to it as a social and human right case which further strengthens this view. Integration is yet to materialize in Sierra Leone as this will require funds for adaptations, training and re-sources.

 

Literature

 

Aveyard H. Doing Literature Review in Health and Social Care, 2^ndedition. Maidenhead: Open University Press, 2010.

 

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Sarah A Glover

 

University of Lincoln, School of Health and Social Care

 

Supervisor: Dr Zahid Asghar

 

Adverse effects of screen time on children:

 

Time for intervention?

 

Abstract: this review considers the current views, studies and statistics that sur-round mobile device use and the consequences of too much screen time on health, edu-cation, learning and development.

Keywords: screen time, digital technology, mobile phones, mobile devices, chil-dren, addiction, child development, health, behaviors, education, sleep deprivation, mental health.

 

Considerable literature now exists that highlights the adverse effects of screen time on children (mobile devices, televisions, computers and video games). The literature examined suggests a direct correlation between too much screen time and developmental problems (academic, physical, mental and psychosocial), possible addiction traits and mental health issues which in-clude anxiety, depression and interpersonal stresses. While the evidence re-garding links to the adverse effects of screen time on children is readily avail-able it is wide, varied and limitless. Parents, carers, children, schools and local authorities should be advised and better informed to understand the scale and implications of the association. Dissemination of total awareness brings diffi-culty due to the vast array of research information and therefore it is suggested there needs to be a pulling together of all the evidence to promote the findings concisely. Collating the research would better inform those most affected. Acknowledgement of implications and the need for intervention could ensue. Further suggested research would include an individual school study to moni-tor and observe children’s behaviors both with and without screen access dur-ing school hours. The aim being a better, at ground level understanding of the implications of controlled use. The objective being the implementation of pol-icy to restrict mobile device use during school hours which will directly im-prove upon the adverse effects and continue to promote positive development into adulthood.

 

Aims and objective. The objective of this dissertation is to identify andexamine the effects of too much screen time on children aged 11 to 16 years

 

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old. It will consider current views and statistics around the consequences of too much screen time on health, education, learning and development. The hy-pothesis being that a restriction of screen time will significantly improve a child’s psychosocial development, emotional and academic intelligence as well as mental and physical health. Research questions that will be answered in this paper:

 

– What does the evidence suggest is the impact upon a child’s develop-

 

ment?

 

– Is there any significant evidence to highlight the possibility of screen addiction?

– What does the evidence suggest in terms of a child’s level of mental health?

– Is there a risk of anxiety, depression and interpersonal stress?

 

– Is it time for not only parents but also schools to be vigilant in the amount of screen time they allow children?

Motivation for the research. Experience and insight gained from vol-unteering as a Counselor within a local senior school presented anecdotal evi-dence which demonstrated how frequently mobile phones and smart phones are relied upon by children during school hours.

 

Methodology: Keywords used in search terms. Some of the keywords used to find relevant research that outlined and made links to the effects of screen time on children included: Screen time or digital technology or mo-bile phones or mobile devices and their effects on children * Screen time ef-fects on childhood behaviors * Screen time and sleep deprivation * Screen time and links associated with addiction * Screen time and human develop-ment * Screen time and its effects on health * Mobile device or mobile phone statistics and ownership or usage.

 

The first research term ‘screen time effects on children’ was accessed through a Google search. Google gave 9,910,000 results. Google scholar gave 1,150,000 results. This research was further restricted by reducing the date range to include the last twenty years. This still produced an unrealistic amount of information available around the key term ‘screen time’. Searching through some of the data it soon became apparent that the specific question of the effects of screen time on child and should there be an enforced restriction during school hours would be difficult to answers in a direct way.

 

What was apparent was the most accessible literature around the main subject was delivered mainly through news articles and electronic media. Ac-

 

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tual studies included in these documents were done on small groups of people with a specific link to a specific outcome – sleep deprivation, addiction, low-ered sense of self and well-being.

 

Example of results. It is through this dissertation and secondary re-search analysis that we begin to identify the risks associated with too much screen time that can be used to better inform schools, parents/carers and local authorities. These are the people and authorities who are identified as being able to influence and support the implementation of restricted use of ‘screen time’. Then begin to address the adverse effects of ‘screen time’ as is currently recognized and endorsed by US, French and Taiwanese governments (Jary, 2017).

 

NHS Choices (2015) state in a study that was conducted by several aca-demic centers world-wide there is a link to increased blood pressure in chil-dren because of too much screen time.

 

NHS Choices (2015²) continues to publish their concerns of what they consider too much screen time and the negative impact it has on a child’s sleep patterns. Suggesting the implication is excessive and a continual distraction which effects a healthy sleep pattern which in turn impacts on the child’s be-havior, learning and development.

 

(Kim, 2011 and Hou, 2012 as cited in Dunckley, 2014) suggest Dopa-mine function can also become altered when engaged in long periods of time using the internet. The ‘pleasure chemical’ as Dopamine is also known is often associated with drug addiction. Hough (2011) also likens the experience of in-ternet withdrawal and technology based gadgets to that of drug addicts and smokers trying to quit. Acknowledgement of the association of addiction re-sulted In May, 2013 that Internet Use Disorder (IUD) is now a recognised dis-order and was added in to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders, published by the American Psychiatric Association.

 

Recommendations and Conclusion. After various attempts at develop-ing a structured approach to evaluating the vast quantities of data, the range and multiple criteria did not answer the question in a simple way. Therefore, it is recommended that after recognizing the effects of screen time on children and their development it would be pertinent for a pilot research project to be considered and conducted. This would be specifically designed to identify and highlight the individual school and student behavior changes during use and non-use of screen time during school hours. The aim of the recommended re-search would be to look at the level of control each individual child possesses

 

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around having and not having free use of screen time. The purpose of identify-ing the need to impose control could become apparent but could also highlight other underlying problems which may include: anxiety disorders, sleep prob-lems, social difficulties and addiction for example. Underlying problems that have been evidenced in the literature review which outlines a direct correlation to screen time use and adverse effects.

 

Literature

 

Dunckley V.L. ‘Grey matters: too much screen time damages thebrain’. Psychology Today. URL: https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/mental-wealth/201402/gray-matters-too-much-screen-time-damages-the-brain (аccessed: 06.05.16).

Hough A. ‘Student ‘addiction’ to technology similar to drug crav-ings’. The Telegraph. London, 2011.

Jary S. ‘How much screen time is healthy for children? Expert tips onscreen safety, education, mental development and sleep’. PC Advisor. URL: http://www.pcadvisor.co.uk/feature/digital-home/how-much-screen-time-is-healthy-for-children-benefits-3520917/ (аccessed: 22.02.16).

 

NHS Choices. ‘Over two hours screen time a day may raise a child’s blood pressure’. NHS Choices. URL: http://www.nhs.uk/news/2015/02February/Pages/Over-two-hours-screen-time-a-day-may-raise-a-childs-blood-pressure.aspx (аccessed: 26.04.16).

 

NHS Choices. ‘How TV, phones and screens spoil kids’ sleep’. NHS Choices. URL: http://www.nhs.uk/Livewell/Childrenssleep/Pages/junksleep.aspx (аccessed: 26.04.16).

 

 

Donna Croucher

 

University of Lincoln, BSc (Hons) Health and Social Care, UK, Lincoln Supervisor: Dr Valeria Carroll,University of Lincoln